Vocational  Liau. 


TRAINING 
INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 


By 

ROY  WILLMARTH   KELLY 

Manager  of  Industrial  Relations  for  the  Associated  Oil  Company  of  California; 
Sometime  Director  of  the  Harvard  University  Bureau  of  Vocational  Guidance 


With  an  Introduction  by 
JOHN  M.  BREWER,  PH.D. 

Associate  Professor  of  Education,  and  Director  of  the  Bureau 
of  Vocational  Guidance,  Harvard  University 


NEW  YORK 

THE  RONALD  PRESS  COMPANY 

1920 


Af 


Copyright,  1920,  by 
THE  RONALD  PKESS  COMPANY 


All  Rights  Reserved 


To  MY  FATHER  AND  MOTHER 

AND     TO     OTHER     FATHERS    AND    MOTHERS    WHOSE 

STEADFAST,  PRACTICAL  FAITH  IN  EDUCATION  MAKES 

PROGRESS  POSSIBLE 


600553 


INTRODUCTION 

"Why  not  try  education?"  is  the  question  which  must 
occur  over  and  over  again  to  one  who  studies  the  adjustments 
and  readjustments  of  industry.  The  child  in  school  must  be 
brought  to  understand  the  industrial  problems  ahead  of  him, 
and  no  less  the  worker  in  the  shop  or  factory  must  be  brought 
to  see  that  only  through  increasing  enlightenment  represented 
by  education,  will  he  be  able  to  solve  his  life  problems,  increase 
his  productive  power,  and  make  progress  toward  full  stature 
as  a  citizen. 

Putting  industrial  problems  into  the  schools  and  putting 
education  into  the  factory  involve  a  high  degree  of  co-opera- 
tion among  all  the  persons  concerned.  They  must  make  con- 
tacts, get  acquainted,  and  learn  from  each  other.  How  can 
these  contacts  be  found?  Why  are  they  necessary?  What 
will  happen  to  schools  which  do  not  co-operate  with  industry, 
and  what  will  happen  to  industrial  establishments  whose 
workers  have  not  the  habit  of  studying  and  learning?  These 
questions  must  impel  serious  thinking  men  and  women  for- 
ward to  find  the  right  relationships  between  doing  and 
thinking. 

Dr.  Kelly's  book  is  written  to  tell  industrial  managers  and 
educational  directors  about  the  lessons  which  both  school 
people  and  manufacturers  have  learned  in  shop  and  factory 
education,  and  to  show  how  these  lessons  can  be  applied  to 
particular  establishments.  He  brings  in  review  the  successful 
accomplishments  in  vocational  education,  with  the  reasons  for 
their  success.  He  points  out  the  need  on  the  one  hand  for 
quick  training  in  skill  and  on  the  other  for  the  more  funda- 
mental education  which  shall  give  knowledge  of  the  correct 
principles  back  of  successful  business  and  for  the  development 
•of  responsibility.  Whether  the  reader  wishes  to  find  out  the 


vi  INTRODUCTION 

theory  back  of  successful  plans  or  the  actual  way  to  begin,  he 
will  find  his  answer. 

In  numerous  passages  Dr.  Kelly  raises  questions  which 
only  the  future  can  decide :  What  will  be  the  forms  of  co-opera- 
tion worked  out  between  schools  and  industry  ?  What  will  be 
the  legal  aspects  of  education  undertaken  by  the  factory? 
What  arrangements  will  be  made  to  provide  for  the  expense? 

The  question  of  public  subsidies  to  encourage  vocational 
education  in  factories  is  a  difficult  one,  particularly  when  we 
realize  that  the  incidence  of  assessments  for  such  expense 
is  not  nearly  so  important  a  problem  to  consider  as  to  determine 
who  gets  the  final  benefit  and  who  ultimately  pays  the  bill. 
Must  we  not  agree  that  the  test  of  whether  or  not  a  factory 
can  afford  to  furnish  educational  opportunity  is  whether  the 
expense  can  be  covered  by  increased  production  or  must  be 
charged  against  the  public  in  the  price  of  the  product?  The 
public  must  inevitably  pay  the  bill  for  education  in  the  fac- 
tory as  well  as  in  the  school,  and  if  the  public  refuses  to 
pay  because  the  cost  is  high  and  the  returns  are  meager  no 
establishment  can  long  continue  its  educational  activities. 

Whether  or  not  every  factory  should  undertake  to  offer 
educational  opportunity  arid  how  broad  this  work  should  be, 
can  hardly  be  answered  without  further  experimentation.  It 
is  safe  to  say  at  present,  no  doubt,  what  Dr.  Kelly's  book 
implies,  that  establishments  using  boys  and  girls  under  the 
age  of  majority  owe  the  state  the  duty  of  seeing  that  intel- 
lectual progress  rather  than  early  deterioration  comes  from 
the  young  worker's  contact  with  industry.  The  continuation 
school  in  this  country  and  the  educational  reforms  now  being 
instituted  in  England  all  point  to  the  setting  up  of  simple 
minimums  required  by  law,  and  to  be  furnished  impartially 
by  all  employers  of  labor — legislation,  that  is,  against  ignorance 
and  inefficiency,  exactly  as  we  now  have  legislation  against 
unsanitary  conditions  and  accidents.  Employers  raise  no  objec-* 


INTRODUCTION  VU 

tion  to  inevitable  improvements  accompanying  the  advance 
of  civilization,  provided  that  the  imposition  of  such  improve- 
ments is  well  considered,  gradual,  and  impartial.  The  demands 
of  society  have  already  led  to  the  establishment  of  wage  rates, 
industrial  compensation,  good  conditions  of  work,  as  well  as 
regulations  regarding  safety,  heating  and  lighting,  fire  protec- 
tion, cleanliness,  and  a  host  of  minor  matters. 

Dr.  Kelly's  figures  in  the  first  chapter  bring  to  our  attention 
the  fact  that  most  industrial  establishments  are  small.  The 
obvious  solution  of  the  educational  problem  presented  by  this 
situation  will  be  a  single  educational  director  for  a  number 
of  small  factories,  a  possibility  as  yet  but  slightly  developed. 
In  one  small  town  an  automobile  mechanic  was  made  into  a 
vocational  teacher  by  the  public  school  authorities  and  held 
classes  in  his  garage  in  the  late  afternoon  and  evening.  It 
may  be  found  possible  to  have  an  intimate  co-operation  which 
will  enable  a  director  to  serve  factories  and  schools  at  the 
same  time,  as  a  co-ordinator  or  instructor  for  a  number  of 
smaller  industrial  organizations.  The  appearance  of  such  a 
teacher  at  a  shop  or  factory  which  contains  perhaps  only  ten 
or  twenty  men,  even  if  for  only  two  hours  each  week,  would 
have  a  decidedly  stimulating  effect  upon  the  establishment. 

Industry  and  the  public  must  jointly  assume  the  full  social 
responsibility  which  education  involves.  The  company  which 
educates  its  workers  must  face  the  possibility  of  progressive 
changes  in  the  industrial  system  and  must  be  willing  to  see  these 
fundamental  amendments  made  if  wisdom  so  decrees.  On, the 
other  hand,  the  company  which  refuses  to  educate  must  face 
industrial  upheaval  and  the  solution  of  difficulties  on  no  basis 
other  than  ignorance.  The  sincere  student  of  education  can 
propose  no  doctrinaire  solution.  His  formula  is,  "Educate 
the  management  and  the  workers  and  help  them  jointly  to 
solve  such  problems  as  the  future  reveals."  In  this  connection 
it  is  interesting  to  remark  that  the  two  establishments  in 


viii  INTRODUCTION 

which,  so  far  as  the  author's  knowledge  goes,  the  workers 
know  most  about  the  affairs  of  the  management,  have  no 
tendencies  whatever  toward  the  thing  loosely  called  '  'industrial 
democracy."  The  workers  in  one  of  these  companies  know 
all  about  the  income  on  the  capital  invested,  the  salaries  of 
the  executives,  the  costs  of  production,  the  purposes  and  plans 
of  scientific  management  and  the  details  of  its  operation,  and 
the  aims  and  proposals  of  those  at  the  top.  Knowing  these 
things,  they  are  willing  to  let  the  managers  manage.  Whether 
this  same  condition  of  affairs  will  obtain  as  we  go  forward 
with  education,  no  one  can  prophesy.  In  any  case,  full  knowl- 
edge is  the  most  important  form  of  "participation." 

The  most  interesting  thing  about  this  book  is  that  it  shows 
that  there  is  no  possibility  of  avoiding  the  education  of  indus- 
trial workers.  In  America  there  can  be  no  escape  from  educa- 
tion and  progress. 

So  far  as  the  author  is  aware,  this  is  the  first  comprehensive 
book  on  the  subject  of  education  in  industry,  and  in  that 
sense  the  book  is  unique  and  Dr.  Kelly  a  pioneer  in  a  neglected 
field.  We  have  had  good  chapters  on  this  subject,  as  witness 
Chapter  VII  in  Dr.  Kelly's  book,  "Hiring  the  Worker/'  and 
we  have  had  books  on  the  subject  of  industrial  education 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  school.  The  present  book  will 
serve  as  a  guide  to  educational  directors  and  personnel  man- 
agers of  industrial  plants,  to  persons  interested  in  vocational 
guidance  and  anxious  to  tie  up  their  work  with  industries 
as  well  as  schools,  to  students  of  educational  sociology  who 
recognize  the  part  which  industry  has  played  and  is  about 
to  play  in  the  economic,  social,  civic,  and  spiritual  progress 
of  the  country,  and  to  all  thoughtful  participants  in  industry 
whether  owners,  managers,  public  officials,  consumers,  labor 
leaders,  or  workers. 

JOHN  M.  BREWER. 
Cambridge,  Mass. 


PREFACE 

Of  the  more  than  eight  million  persons  engaged  in  indus- 
trial pursuits  in  the  United  States,  not  one-third  have  had 
a  grammar  school  education.  Those  who  have  had  any  effec- 
tive vocational  training  represent  a  much  smaller  proportion 
of  the  total.  Although  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  exact 
amount  of  the  economic  and  social  losses  resulting  from  the 
lack  of  education  or  faulty  education,  it  is  quite  certain  that 
the  aggregate  is  extremely  large.  The  purpose  of  this  volume 
is  to  indicate  what  some  of  these  losses  are,  to  point  out  the 
more  important  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  preventing  them, 
and  to  suggest  a  practical  program  for  future  action. 

It  is  essential  that  private  manufacturing  establishments 
should  avail  themselves  of  every  possible  opportunity  to  secure 
the  assistance  of  public  and  private  educational  institutions. 
It  is  essential,  on  the  other  hand,  that  educators  should  con- 
tinually modify  their  theories  and  methods  in  the  light  of  the 
needs  of  progressive  industrial  concerns.  To  further  a  recog- 
nition and  understanding  of  these  mutual  interests,  the  volume 
presents  a  survey  of  all  the  important  types  of  schools  and 
classes  and  illustrations  of  their  work.  An  effort  has  also 
been  made  to  point  out  the  expedient  scope  of  the  functions 
of  industrial  education  to  be  discharged  by  federal,  state,  and 
local  governments,  and  to  show  what  would  constitute  a  rea- 
sonable division  of  responsibility  between  the  public  agency 
and  the  private  enterprise. 

As  the  work  is  addressed  primarily  to  business  executives 
who  may  not  be  closely  familiar  with  the  organization  or 
management  of  educational  affairs,  and  for  whom  the  training 
of  employees  is  a  matter  of  immediate  practical  concern,  the 

ix 


x  PREFACE 

treatment  of  educational  agencies  not  directly  under  the  con- 
trol of  industry  has  been  subordinated,  and  emphasis  has  been 
laid  upon  the  training  which  can.<be  accomplished  within  the 
plant. 

Much  illustrative  matter  has  been  included  which  is  widely 
scattered  through  professional  educational  literature  and  not 
easily  accessible  to  most  business  executives.  On  the  other 
hand,  ov/ing  to  the  limitations  of  the  discussion,  several  sig- 
nificant educational  developments,  such  as  continuation  schools, 
co-operative  part-time  classes,  and  trade  schools,  have  had  to 
be  passed  over  with  less  extended  notice  than  their  importance 
merits. 

The  subject  matter  and  conclusions  are  based  upon  personal 
visits  to  business  concerns  and  schools  in  many  different  parts 
of  the  United  States,  numerous  conferences  with  employment 
managers  and  school  officers,  extensive  correspondence,  and 
personal  experience  as  principal  of  a  technical  high  school 
and  director  of  part-time  courses  in  employment  management. 
Among  the  many  persons  who  have  given  assistance  in  various 
ways,  special  acknowledgment  is  due  to  members  of  the  Divi- 
sion of  Education  and  of  the  Bureau  of  Vocational  Guidance 
of  Harvard  University,  who  have  helped  in  collecting  material 
and  in  revising  the  manuscript. 

Parts  of  several  chapters  were  first  published  in  Industrial 
Management  and  in  the  Harvard  Graduates'  Magazine. 
Through  the  courtesy  of  the  editors,  this  material  has  been 
revised  for  presentation  in  the  present  form.  The  author  is 
also  indebted  to  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education 
for  permission  to  reprint  portions  of  the  bulletin  entitled 
"Industrial  Education  and  Employment  Management." 

ROY  WlLLMARTH  KELLY. 

San  Francisco,  California, 
September  15,  1920. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I  INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING  AND  PRESENT-DAY  INDUSTRY         .     .       i 

An  Educational  Creed  for  Industry 
Industrial  Training 
Vocational  Education 
Determining  Responsibility 
Method  of  the  Present  Discussion 
Complexity  of  Industry 

Size  and  Geographical  Distribution  of  Industrial  Establish- 
ments 

One-Industry  Towns 
Financial  Resources 
Seasonal  Fluctuations 
Steadying  Employment 
/Transfers 
Xabor  Turnover 
Short- Term  Employees 
Unskilled  and  Child  Labor 
A  Typical  Factory 
Unemployment 
Causes 
Remedies 

II  INADEQUATE  INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING  AND  ITS  RESULTS      .     .     28 

Preparation  of  Young  Workers 
Defects  of  Public  School  Systems 
Maryland  Survey 
Retarded  Pupils 
Prevalence  of  Child  Labor 
Waste  of  Child  Labor 
.    Illiteracy 

Americanization  Work 
Productive  Service 
Possibility  of  Progress 
A  Training  Program 
The  Duty  of  Industry 
Obligations  of  the  Public 

III  EARLIER  FORMS  OF  APPRENTICESHIP       .     .     .     .  '•••"''•     •     42 

Historical  Background 
Beginnings  of  Trade 
Formation  of  Guilds 
The  Guild  and  the  Trade  Union 
Apprenticeship — Its  Meaning 
Persistence  of  Apprenticeship 
Decline  of  Guilds 

xi 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

The  Industrial  Revolution 
Abuses  Under  the  New  System 
Apprenticeship  in  America  ji 

The  "Domestic  Period" 
Decline  of  Apprenticeship 
The  Factory  System 
-Effect  of  Specialization 
"Floating"  or  "Casual"  Labor 
Attitude  of  Organized  Labor 
Early  Unions 

Opposition  to  Specialization 
Effect  of  Union  Attitude 
The  Unions  and  Child  Labor 
Trade  Union  Classes 
Apprenticeship  and  Modern  Educational  Tendencies 

IV  BEGINNINGS  IN  MODERN  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION        ...     62 
Rise  of  Factory  System 
Labor's  Interest  Neglected 
Pioneer  Technical  Training 
Applying  Scientific  Knowledge 
Popularizing  Vocational  Education 
Vocational  Training  in  the  Public  Schools 
The  Manual  Training  High  School 
Two  Theories  of  Shopwork 
Instruction  for  a  Specific  End 
The  Polytechnic  High  School 
Part-Time  Education 
Continuation  Schools 
The  Wisconsin  Plan 
Cox  Child  Labor  Act — Pennsylvania 
Difficulties 
Corporation  Schools 
Labor  Organizations  and  Industrial  Training 

V  NATIONAL  AND  STATE  AID  FOR  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION      .     .     77 

National  Land  Grants  for  Education 

Land  Grant  Act  of  1862 

Federal  Appropriations  for  Education 

The  Smith-Lever  Act 

The  Smith-Hughes  Act 

Three  Uses  of  Federal  Funds 

Federal  Policy 

Restrictions  Imposed  on  State 

Possibilities  Under  Federal  Act 

Financial  Aid  to  Corporations 

The  Physically  Handicapped 

Work  of  Federal  Bureau  of  Education 

Backwardness  of  States 

Need  of  Co-operation 

VI  TECHNICAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  AND  CLASSES      .".     .     i     .     87 
Development  of  High  Schools 
Complexity  of  Secondary  Schools 


CONTENTS  xiii 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Meaning  of  Term  "Technical  Education" 
Vocational  Schools  Classified 
Aims  of  Three  Types  of  School 
Airm  of  Technical  High  School 
Diversity  of  Aims 
Vocational  Classes — Growth 
Vocational  Schools — Growth 
Courses  of  Study 
Facts  Revealed  by  Tables 

VII    DEVELOPING  THE  POSSIBILITIES  OF  THE  SCHOOLS       ,     .     .   104 

Recent  Tendencies 

Distribution  of  Technical  High  Schools 

Special  Type  School:  Disadvantages 

Prevocational  Education 

Manual  Training  Aims  in  the  High  School 

Training  for  Junior  Industrial  Leaders 

Technical  Training  and  Shipbuilding 

Co-operation  of  Public  and  Industry 

Special  Training  for  Leadership 

Possibilities  of  the  Technical  High  School 

Courses  in  Management 

Causes  of  Failure 

The  Present  Opportunity 

Present  Handicaps 

*  VIII  RELATION  OF  EMPLOYMENT  MANAGEMENT  TO  INDUSTRIAL 

TRAINING .,.,..     ,v  •     •  IJ7 

Employment  Management — A  New  Profession 

Evolution  of  Employment  Management 

Relieving  the  Foreman 

Service  Department — Self-Supporting 

Service  Department  and  Physical  Well-Being 

Utilizing  the  Industrial  Physician 

Accident  Prevention 

Management  and  Labor  in  Co-operation 

Labor  Legislation 

Employment  Management  and  Social  Progress 

Functions  of  the  Service  Manager 

Lessons  from  War  Emergency 

Selection  and  Assignment  of  Employees 

Training  the  Employee 

Making  Adjustments 

"Group  Relations" 

Relation  of  Service  Manager  and  Director  of  Training 

Value  of  Trained  Staff  Executives 

s 

IX  THE  NEW  APPRENTICESHIP      .     .     ,     ,     ...   -\~\  .     .   134 

Stimulus  of  War 

The  New  Apprenticeship — Aim  and  Scope 
Retention  of  Older  Forms 
Disadvantages  to  Apprentice 


xiv  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Efforts  at  Improvement 
Trade  Union  Control 
State  Supervision  <» 

Wisconsin — A  Comprehensive  Plan 
Classification  of  Trades 
New  Features 

Washington's  Minimum  Wage  Law 
Possible  Growth  of  State  Supervision 
Corporation  Schools 
Grand  Trunk  Railroad  a  Pioneer 

American  Locomotive  Company — Preliminary  Requirements 
Drafting  Course 
Shop  Apprentice  Course 

National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools — Recommenda- 
tions 

The  Program  Criticized 
Probable  Future  Development 

X  VESTIBULE  TRAINING  AND  IMPROVEMENT  IN  SERVICE       .     .153 

Value  of  Vestibule  Training 

Suggestions  of  H.  L.  Gantt 

A  Typical  Vestibule  School 

Vestibule  Schools  in  Great  Britain 

Three  Forms 

Instruction  in  the  Factory  Itself 

Trend  Toward  Standardization 

French  Experience 

Supplementary  Instruction  in  United  States 

Advantages  of  the  Vestibule  Method 

Disadvantages  of  the  Vestibule  Method 

Small  Classes 

Inefficiency  of  Evening  Classes 

Necessity  of  Keeping  Records 

Training  Instructors 

Improvement  of  Employees  in  Service 

The  Westinghouse  Plan 

Co-operation  with  Public  Schools 

Part-Time  Employment  for  Students 

Urgency  of  Present  Situation 

XI  TRAINING  MINOR  EXECUTIVES 175 

Planning  for  Transfers  and  Promotion 

W.  H.  McElwain  Company — Training  Plan 

The  Situation  Outlined 

Gathering  Information 

The  Purpose  of  the  Check  List  Sheets 

Training  in  Personal  Technique 

Psychology  of  Specific  Approach 

The  Final  Examination 

Records  of  Graduates 

Westinghouse  Work  with  Production  Clerks 

Course  of  Study 

Adaptability  of  These  Plans 


CONTENTS  xv 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Selection  of  Instructors  ^ 
Small  Classes  and  Practical  Topics 
Discussion  of  Problems  in  Management 
The  Problem  Briefly  Stated 

XII  THE  FOREMAN'S  TRAINING      .     .     .     .     .^  .     .     .     .     .  190 

The  Evolution  of  the  Foreman 

Survival  of  Old  Type 

Functional  Foremanship 

Present  Practice 

W.  H.  Me  El  wain  Company  Work  with  Foremen 

Functions  of  a  Foreman 

Problem  of  Improvement 

Technical  Training — Lowell  Institute 

Carnegie  School  of  Applied  Industries 

"Flying  Squadron" — Goodyear  Company 

Goodyear  Special  Training  Course 

Firestone  Training  Class 

Packard  Service  School 

The  Foremen's  Meeting 

Questions  for  Foremen's  Meeting 

"Progress  Clubs" — Montgomery  Ward  and  Company 

Dennison  Company  Plan 

Advance  Preparation 

Homework 

Training  Supervisors — Montgomery  Ward  and  Company 

Rotating  Foremen 

Groups  Requiring  Training 

Preparing  Materials  for  Training 

Special  Training  Methods 

Present  Tendency  and  Prospect 

XIII  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  IN  SCHOOL  AND  IN  INDUSTRY        .     .215 

Choosing  a  Vocation 
Effective  Vocational  Guidance 
Extending  the  Vocational  Horizon 
Need  of  Vocational  Literature 
"Life  Career"  Classes 
Guidance  Department  Necessary 
Guidance  Problems  in  Industry 
Faulty  Interviewing 
Winning  an  Applicant's  Confidence 
Knowledge  of  the  Occupations 
Organizing  the  Interviewer's  Task 
The  Interviewer  as  Adviser 
Necessity  of  Several  Viewpoints 
Job  "Study 
Standard  Practice 
Job  Specifications 
Some  Typical  Job  Specifications 
Acquaintance  with  Supervisors 
Knowing  Sources  of  Labor  Supply 
Familiarity  with  Other  Plants 


xvi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  pAGE 

Use  of  Observational  Tests 
The  Use  of  Psychological  Tests 
Unsatisfactory  Tests 
Army  Trade  Tests 
Choice  of  Interviewer 
Value  of  Practical  Experience 

XIV   ORGANIZING  FOR  TRANSFERS  AND  PROMOTIONS     h.     .     .         240 

Transfer  of  Employees 

Causes  of  Transfer 

Recording  Devices 

Promotions 

Criticisms  of  Scientific  Management 

Distribution  of  Ability 

Physical  Fitness 

Inertia  Among  Workmen 

4 'First-Class  Men" 

Analyzing  Each  Position 

Standardized  Rates  and  Occupations 

Hindrances  to  Self-Improvement 

Plans  of  Promotions — Three- Position  Plan 

The  "Understudy"  Plan 

The  "Next  Step" 

Acquainting  Employees  with  Plan 

Vocational  Guidance — The  Part  of  School  and  Industry 

XV  RATING  EMPLOYEES '.     ...   261 

Necessity  of  Rating  Method 

Rating  Apprentices 

Rating  Department  Store  Employees 

Rating  Operators 

Rating  Clerks 

XVI   STANDARDS  FOR  RATING  SCHEMES 276 

Elements  of  Correct  Rating  Method 
Plan  of  National  Cash  Register  Company 
Plan  of  Burroughs  Adding  Machine  Company 
Danger  of  Inaccuracy — Harvard  Example 
Officer  Rating — United  States  Army 
Suggestions  for  Increasing  Accuracy 
Importance  of  Uniform  and  Objective  Standards 

XVII  THE  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  DEMOCRATIC  PARTICIPATION 

IN  MANAGEMENT 291 

The  Democratic  Shop 

Management  Problems 

Utilizing  Labor's  Knowledge 

Value  of  Incentives 

Three  Types  of  Plan 

The  Collective  Bargaining  Plan  in  the  United  States 

Collective  Bargaining  in  England 

Plant  Associations  of  Employees 


CONTENTS  xvii 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Employee  Representation — Philadelphia  Traction  Company 
The  "National  Government"  Plan 
Shop  Committees 
Fore  River  Shipbuilding  Plant 
Welfare  Activities 
Importance  of  Mutual  Confidence 
Sympathetic  Management 
Definite  Plan  of  Procedure 
The  Trade  Union  and  the  Democratic  Shop 
Advantages  of  Shop  Organization  _ 
Advantages  of  Co-operative  Activities 
Future  Participation  in  Management 

XVIII  A  FACTORY  SURVEY  TO  ESTABLISH  TRAINING       ....  307 

Preliminary  Investigation 

Organizing  Plant  Knowledge 

Task  of  Educational  Director 

Operations  Classified 

Survey  of  the  Factory 

Sources  of  Information 

Theory  of  Wages 

Training  and  Wages 

A  Training  Program 

Chart  of  Training  Program 

Common  Subjects 

Placing  the  Employee 

Provision  for  Foreigners  and  the  Unskilled 

XIX  A  NEW  EMPHASIS  IN  EDUCATION       ,  -, 320 

Underlying  Principles 
Educational  Aims 
Popular  Knowledge  and  Progress 
Our  Problem — Dr.  John  H.  Gray 
Our  Problem — Lester  F.  Ward 
Three  Questions 
Equality  Among  Men 
Conclusions  of  Investigators 
Taussig's  Conclusion 
Distribution  of  Capacity 
Opportunity  and  Success 
Self-made  Men 
Repressed  Capacity 
Developing  Opportunities 
Education  at  Public  Expense 
A  Lesson  from  Agriculture 
Educational  Reorganization 
Consulting  Industrial  Leaders 
Part-Time  Instruction 
Contact  with  Industry 
Proposed  Plans 

XX  FIXING  RESPONSIBILITY  FOR  THE  NEW  PROGRAM      .     .     .335 

Responsibility  of  Government 
Responsibility  of  Industry 


XV111 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 


PAGE 


Drawing  the  Line 

Possible  Resources 

The  Small  Firm 

The  British  Experiment        > 

"Unit"  versus  "Dual"  Control 

Unit  Control 

Dual  Control 

Vocational  Education  in  Massachusetts 

Vocational  Education  in  California 

Smith-Hughes  Plan 

Putting  the  Program  into  Effect 

Desirable  Government  Action 

Fostering  Community  Enterprise 

Enlarging  Place  of  Public  Schools 

Industry's  Share  of  the  Burden 

Helping  Industry  Help  Itself 

Fitting  Workers  for  a  "Larger  Life" 

APPENDIX    A — Educational  Survey  of  Technical  Secondary  Schools  and 

Classes 349 

B — Apprentice  School  of  the  Lakeside  Press 361 

C — Educational  Activities  of  the  General  Electric  Company  366 
D — The  Sojvay  Process  Company  Training  School  .  .  .371 
E — Educational  Work  of  Montgomery  Ward  and  Company  374 
F — Standard  Practice  for  Operatives  of  the  Vestibule  School 

of  the  Hood  Rubber  Company 376 

G — Employees'  Association  of  the  Morse  Dry  Dock  and 

Repair  Company 37^ 

H — Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company's 

Classification  and  Rates  for  Employees  .  .  .  .381 
I — Apprenticeship  Indenture  Prepared  by  the  Industrial 

Commission  of  Wisconsin 385 

J — Collective  Agreements  between  Employers  and  Labor 

Organizations  for  the  Regulation  of  Apprenticeship 

in  Massachusetts 387 

K — Classification  of  Industrial  Schools  and  Training  Methods  393 
L — Bibliography 402 


FORMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE          .  PAGE 

1.  Table  Indicating  Size  of  Industrial  Establishments 6 

2.  Table  Showing  Distribution  of  Manufacturing  Enterprises  (1914)      .       7 

3.  Table  Showing  Seasonal  Nature  of  Certain  Industries  in  the  United 

States  (1914) -.   8-9 

4.  Diagram  of  Seasonal   Labor  Fluctuations  in   Selected   Industries 

Employing  about  10,000  Persons 12-13 

5.  Diagram  of   Seasonal  Labor   Fluctuations  in   Selected   Industries 

Employing  Over  100,000  Persons 14-15 

6.  Table  Showing  Size  of  Labor  Turnover  in  105  Establishments      .      .      19 

7.  Table  Showing  Number  of  Separations  and  Length  of  Service  of 

Employees  in  14  California  Concerns 20 

8.  Diagram  of  Length  of  Service  of  Employees  in  a  New  England  Fac- 

tory      21 

9.  Diagram  of  Length  of  Service  of  Employees  in  Two  Departments  of 

the  Concern  Represented  in  Figure  8 23 

10.  Diagram  of  Weekly  Fluctuations  in  the  Number  of  Employees  in 

Department  "Y"  Manufacturing  a  Staple  Commodity      ...     24 

11.  Diagram  of  Weekly  Fluctuations  in  the  Number  of  Employees  in 

Department  "  X  "  Manufacturing  a  Seasonal  Product  .      ...     25 

12.  Median  Percentages  of  the  Whole  Number  of  Boys  and  Girls  Who 

were  of  Normal  Age,  Over  Age,  or  Under  Age  (1908)     ...     29 

13.  Table  Showing  Children  Under  Age,  Over  Age,  and  Normal  Age  in 

Maryland  Public  Schools 30 

14.  Table  Showing  Number  of  Children  Gainfully  Employed  and  Not 

in  School 32 

15.  Table  Showing  the  Number  of  Minors  Employed  in  Selected  Indus- 

tries   .      .      .      .      .      .      .....      •      •- 33 

1 6.  Table   Showing   Industrial   Histories   of   Chicago   Boys  from   the 

Elementary  Grades 34 

17.  Table  Showing  Infant   Deaths  per   1,000  Live  Births  in  Massa- 

chusetts Municipalities 38 

1 8.  Table  Showing  Deaths  from  All  Causes  Among  Children  Under 

i  Year  of  Age  in  European  Cities  and  New  York  (1913)    .      .      .     39 

19.  Mortality  Statistics  of  Textile  Cities  Compared  with  Other  Munici- 

palities in  Massachusetts  (1918)    40 

20.  Table  Showing  Growth  of  Large-Scale  Industrial  Enterprises  in 

United  States 53 

21.  Percentage  Figures  of  Strikes  and  Lockouts  in  the  United  States 

Due  to  Disputes  Over  Apprenticeship  in  Comparison  with  All 
Other  Causes  (1881  to  1886  inclusive) 57 

22.  Statistics  Comparing  the  Growth  of  Public  High  Schools  with  the 

Increase  in  Technical  and  Manual  Training  Courses     .      .      .      -95 

23.  Table  Showing  Number  of  Girls  Enrolled  in  Public  High  Schools     .     96 

24.  Statistics  of  Manual  and  Technical  Training  Courses  in  Public 

High  Schools 97 

25.  Table  Showing  Growth  of  Manual  Training  and  Technical  Secondary 

Schools -.v.-i  '%.  ...     •     97 


XX  FORMS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

26.  List  of  Public  Technical  High  Schools  Appearing  in  the  Reports  of 

the  Commissioner  of  Education 98 

27.  Table  Showing  Academic  and  General  Subjects  Studied  by  Boys 

Only,  in  1 5  Technical  High  Schools 99 

28.  Statistics  of  Applied  Science,  Practical  Mathematics,  and  Drawing 

Courses  Offered  for  Boys  Only,  in  15  Technical  High  Schools       .    100 

29.  Statistics  of  Commercial  Subjects  Offered  for  Boys  Only,  in  15  Tech- 

nical High  Schools 100 

30.  Statistics  of  Shop  Courses  and  Field  Work  Offered  for  Boys  Only, 

in  15  Technical  High  Schools 101 

31.  Table  Showing  Courses  of  Study  Offered  by   18  Technical  High 

Schools 102 

32.  Table  of  "  Non-Commissioned  Officers  "  of  Industry  in  Minneapolis  .    109 

33.  Table  Showing  Percentage  of  Minor  Executives  and  Other  Persons 

Needing  Technical  Training  in  the  Leading  Trades  in  the  Ship- 
building Industry in 

34.  Statistics  on  Defects  Among   School  Children,   Reported  by  the 

Local  Education  Authorities  in  England  for  1915 120 

35.  Table  Showing  Defects  Among  62,027  School  Children  in  Philadel- 

phia     121 

36.  Table  Showing  Percentages  of  Children  Having  Certain  Physical 

Defects.    Based  on  Examination  of  559,863  Children  in  9  Cities 

in  the  United  States 122 

37.  Industrial  Relations  Organization  Chart 127 

38.  Training  Department  Chart 128 

39.  Chart  Showing  Functions  of  Employment  Department      .      .      .      .  1 30 

40.  Statistics  of  Apprentices  in  Manufacturing  and  Mechanical  Indus- 

tries (1910) 136 

41.  Table  Showing  Extent  of  Apprenticeship  in  27  Cities  in  1910       .      .  137 

42.  Form  for  Training  Record 166 

43.  Diagram  of  Training  by  Upgrading  Process 167 

44.  Layout  for  an  Employment  Office  in  a  Large  Shipyard      ....  222 

45.  Form  of  Job  Specification 227 

46.  Job  Specification  Designed  by  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation     .  228 

47.  A  Job  Specification  Adapted  for  General  Factory  Use 229 

48.  Specifications  for  Physically  Handicapped  Men  Used  by  The  Harvard 

Bureau  of  Vocational  Guidance  .     • 230 

49.  Section  of  Report   Form  for   interviewing   Employees  Who  are 

Voluntarily  Leaving 241 

50.  Classification  of  Employees'   Reasons  for  Desiring  to  Terminate 

Employment <_     .         242 

51.  Form  for  Recording  Qualifications  of  Employees 245 

52.  Distribution  of  Ratings  for  82,936  Enlisted  Men,  4,023  Corporals, 

3,393  Sergeants,  and  8,819  Officers 250 

53.  Graphic  Representation  of  Success  and  Failure  of  1,375  Men  in 

the  Officers'  Training  School 250 

54.  Job  Specification  Card 255 

55.  Form  for  Report  on  Apprentices 263 

56.  Apprentice  Record  Form 264 

57.  Form  for  Charting  Earnings  of  Apprentices 265 

58.  Record  Card  for  Shop  Students 265 

59.  Form  for  Reporting  on  Department  Store  Salespersons      .      .      .      .268 

60.  Section  of  Loose- Leaf  Form  for  Recording  Ratings     .....  269 

61.  Form  for  Recording  Efficiency  of  Telegraph  Operators    .     .     .      .271 


FORMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS  xxi 

FIGURE  PAGE 

62.  Rating  Scale  for  Office  Employees 273 

63.  Review  Blank  for  Employees' Ratings 275 

64.  Table  Showing  Variation  in  Ratings 281 

65.  The  Rating  Scale  Card 283 

66.  Rating  Scale  for  Foremen 284 

67.  Graphic  Representation  of  Teacher's  Ratings 

(a)  Teacher  Marking  too  High 286 

(b)  Teacher  Marking  too  Low 287 

(c)  Normal  Assignment  of  Grades 288 

68.  An  Individual  Rating  Chart 289 

69.  Chart  of  the  Training  Program 316 

70.  Sample  English  Lessons  for  Foreigners 318 

71.  Schedule  of  Instruction  for  the  Solvay  Process  Company  Training 

School 372 


TRAINING 
INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 


CHAPTER  I 

INDUSTRIAL   TRAINING  AND   PRESENT-DAY 
INDUSTRY 

An  Educational  Creed  for  Industry 

In  the  industrial  world  of  today  every  worker  needs  train- 
ing. This  need  grows  not  alone  out  of  the  necessities  of  the 
employee  but  out  of  the  interests  of  the  employer  and  of  the 
public  as  well.  The  inefficient,  poorly  trained  worker  not 
only  fails  to  achieve  the  highest  personal  satisfaction  by  the 
effective  use  of  his  natural  ability,  but  he  also  interferes  with 
the  productiveness  of  others  and  retards  economic  and  social 
progress.  In  the  world's  reorganized  social  structure,  no 
group  will  have  more  power  than  industrial  workers.  Because 
they  are  concentrated  in  cities  and  can  be  easily  organized 
under  the  factory  system,  they  will  use  their  power  to  better 
advantage  than  those  engaged  in  agriculture,  transportation, 
or  business.  Whether  industry  contributes  effectively  to  the 
common  welfare  or  is  wasteful  of  human  life  and  energy, 
whether  it  becomes  a  tremendous  constructive  agency  or  a 
menace  to  civilization,  depends  in  large  part  upon  educational 
forces. 

This  book  is  concerned  with  one  proposition — the  necessity 
of  training  industrial  workers  in  order  to  conserve  the  best 
interests  of  employees,  employers,  and  the  public.  On  the 
one  hand  will  appear  a  recital  of  certain  facts  and  circum- 
stances intended  to  portray  this  necessity.  On  the  other  will 
be  found  a  consideration  of  the  ways  and  means  of  carrying 
out  a  practical  program  based  upon  the  recognition  of  such 
necessity. 


,  .. 

2  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

Industrial  Training 

The  term  "industrial  training"  is  generally  understood  to 
mean  a  form  of  instruction  designed  to  prepare  for  useful 
or  profitable  employment.  It  is  thought  of  as  providing  in- 
struction for  the  development  of  specialized  skill,  applied 
technical  knowledge,  and  practical  information  in  a  particular 
occupation.  Thus  a  trade  school  offers  vocational  training 
for  blacksmiths,  carpenters,  or  electricians. 

Vocational  Education 

Trade  training  in  its  more  narrowly  specialized  form  has 
sharp  limitations.  To  develop  really  efficient  employees  is 
impossible  if  they  are  left  without  any  intelligent  grasp  of 
the  duties  of  citizenship,  or  of  such  matters  as  personal 
hygiene,  plant  sanitation  and  safety,  the  use  of  leisure  time, 
or  the  simple  elements  of  economics  applied  to  the  home  and 
to  the  management  of  industry.  To  meet  the  situation  ade- 
quately an  education  which  includes  well-rounded  preparation 
for  life's  activities  is  necessary.  For  this  broader  training  the 
term  "vocational  education"  is  usually  used. 

Vocational  education,  we  may  say,  is  such  a  system  of 
instruction  and  training  as  prepares  the  way  not  only  for 
the  pursuit  of  a  particular  occupation  or  calling  but  also  for 
participation  in  social  enterprises  directly  or  indirectly  affect- 
ing the  vocation. 

Determining  Responsibility 

Industrial  establishments,  as  is  natural,  are  mainly  con- 
cerned with  the  immediate  problems  of  increasing  the  skill 
of  operatives  and  developing  persons  capable  of  filling  execu- 
tive and  technical  positions.  For  this  reason,  many  industrial 
leaders  are  inclined  to  discount  the  value  of  general  education 
carried  beyond  the  acquisition  of  the  tools  of  learning  in  the 


PRESENT-DAY    INDUSTRY  3 

grammar  school.  Government,  however,  is  becoming  increas- 
ingly insistent  that  those  matters  which  make  for  health,  right 
living,  and  intelligent  citizenship  be  not  neglected  by  employers 
of  labor. 

Here,  accordingly,  we  find  the  crux  of  the  whole  question 
of  industrial  training.  With  whom  does  the  obligation  to 
educate  the  worker  rest?  To  make  more  apparent  this  basic 
problem  the  field  of  educational  effort  may  be  separated  into 
three  general  phases: 

1.  A  group   of   subjects  in  which  the   state  is  vitally 

interested,  such  as  citizenship,  thrift,  safety,  and 
health. 

2.  A  group  of  subjects  of  general  value  in  a  considerable 

number  of  occupations,  such  as  mechanical  drawing, 
applied  science  and  mathematics,  mechanics,  eco- 
nomics, business  English,  or  the  elements  of  factory 
management. 

3.  The  skill  or  practical  knowledge  which  can  be  used 

in  only  one  concern  or  in  a  narrowly  limited  trade. 

How  far  is  the  private  corporation  justified  in  expending 
money  to  make  up  the  deficiencies  of  public  education  for  the 
first  two  groups,  and  to  what  extent  is  the  expenditure  of 
public  funds  justified  in  giving  training  which  is  of  value 
to  a  relatively  small  number  of  persons? 

From  the  employer's  standpoint  it  may  prove  uneconomical 
to  train  workers  who  may  stay  only  a  short  period  of  time, 
who  may  often,  indeed,  be  enticed  away  by  parasitical  firms 
that  fail  to  do  their  own  part  in  such  training.  National, 
state,  or  local  governments,  on  the  other  hand,  must  determine, 
before  any  form  of  education  can  be  approved  and  given 
financial  aid,  to  what  extent  public  benefit  and  how  far  private 
interest  is  served  by  it.  In  a  certain  measure,  legislation 
regarding  vocational  education  must  be  subject  to  the  same 


4  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

criterion  which  serves  as  a  standard  for  other  forms  of  labor 
legislation — that  of  "reasonable  classification."  John  R.  Com- 
mons in  his  "Principles  of  Labot  Legislation"  (page  31)  states 
the  principle  in  these  words: 

That  which  is  class  legislation  at  one  time  may  become 
reasonable  classification  at  a  later  time,  if  the  court  per- 
ceives that  what  it  once  thought  was  equality  is  really 
inequality,  and  what  it  once  thought  was  merely  private 
benefit  is  also  public  benefit.  ...  In  proportion  as  certain 
classes  of  laborers,  such  as  women  or  mine-workers,  are 
recognized  by  the  courts  as  suffering  an  injury,  and  in  pro- 
portion as  the  injured  persons  are  deemed  to  be  of  importance 
to  the  public  as  well  as  unable  to  protect  themselves,  then 
legislation  requiring  the  employer  to  remove  the  injury  and 
prohibiting  the  laborer  from  even  voluntarily  consenting  to  the 
injury  ceases  to  be  overruled  as  "class  legislation"  and  begins 
to  be  sustained  as  "reasonable  classification." 

Once  this  fundamental  question  of  responsibility  has  been 
decided,  the  next  problem  to  be  faced  relates  to  the  extent 
to  which  training  can  be  undertaken  profitably  and  to  the 
practical  methods  of  control,  financial  support,  administration, 
and  instruction. 

Method  of  the  Present  Discussion 

To  answer  these  questions  in  a  practical  manner,  an 
account  will  be  given  of  the  nature  and  variety  of  industrial 
occupations  in  the  United  States,  and  the  need  of  training 
persons  for  them.  This  will  be  followed  by  a  description  and 
evaluation  of  the  provisions  which  have  been  made  to  meet 
this  demand,  and  in  conclusion  some  suggestions  will  be 
offered  as  to  what  appear  to  be  appropriate  lines  for  future 
development  in  the  light  of  successful  experience.  For  the 
purposes  of  this  study,  the  field  of  industrial  training  is  limited 
to  the  344  manufacturing  industries  listed  in  the  Statistical 
Abstract  for  1917. 


PRESENT-DAY   INDUSTRY  5 

Complexity  of  Industry 

The  complexity  of  the  problem  of  industrial  education  may 
be  evidenced  in  several  ways.  Of  the  344  industries  in  the 
United  States  mentioned  above,  244  employed  an  average  of 
2,000  or  more  wage-earners  in  1914.  Each  of  the  remaining 
100  industries  gave  employment  to  persons  varying  in  number 
from  100  to  2,000.  Even  granting  that  many  of  the  wage- 
earners  in  these  industries  are  unskilled  and  that  many  others 
can  acquire  the  necessary  skill  in  a  few  hours,  a  concession 
which  the  experience  of  most  employers  shows  to  be  unwar- 
ranted, there  still  remains  an  exceedingly  large  number  of 
occupations,  each  quite  markedly  different  from  the  others, 
for  which  some  training  is  desirable.  Steel  shipbuilding,  for 
example,  requires  workmen  in  about  forty  important  trades. 
The  work  done  in  some  fifteen  of  these  trades  closely  resembles 
that  performed  by  men  in  similar  lines  outside  of  the  ship- 
yard. Twelve  or  fifteen  other  shipyard  trades  have  corre- 
sponding outside  occupations,  but  to  do  good  work  in  the 
yard,  the  outside  mechanic  requires  some  additional  instruction 
in  shipbuilding  methods.  In  the  case  of  shipbuilding,  that  is 
to  say,  there  are  ten  or  more  skilled  trades,  in  addition  to 
a  considerable  number  of  semiskilled  occupations,  for  which 
specific  training  must  be  planned. 

The  descriptions  of  occupations  prepared  by  the  Harvard 
Bureau  of  Vocational  Guidance  reveal  a  similar  situation  in 
other  industries.  In  the  manufacture  of  rubber  goods,  185 
important  occupations  are  peculiar  to  this  industry  and  each 
requires  some  training.  In  the  manufacture  of  optical  goods, 
30  distinct  operations  besides  scores  of  single-purpose  machines 
are  involved.  In  coppersmithing  about  25,  in  printing  and 
lithographing  70,  and  in  the  boot  and  shoe  industry  160  dif- 
ferent operations  are  necessary.  The  Westinghouse  Electric 
and  Manufacturing  Company  of  East  Pittsburgh,  Pennsyl- 
vania, issues  a  standardized  list  of  occupations  used  by  its 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


employment  department  of  which  more  than  170  are  peculiar 
to  the  work  of  this  company.  The  Dennison  Manufacturing 
Company  of  Framingham,  Massachusetts,  manufacturers  of 
tags,  paper  boxes,  and  printed  specialties,  claims  150  dif- 
ferent occupations,  many  of  them  peculiar  to  that  concern. 
An  interesting  treatment  of  this  phase  of  modern  industry 
is  contained  in  a  series  of  studies  on  opportunities  for  handi- 
capped men,  published  by  the  Red  Cross  Institute  for  Crippled 
and  Disabled  Men,  New  York. 

Size  and  Geographical  Distribution  of  Industrial  Establish- 
ments 

Among  the  factors  which  serve  to  complicate  the  problems 
of  industrial  training,  none  are  of  greater  significance  than 
the  size  and  geographical  distribution  of  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments. There  has  been  during  the  last  half  century  a 
strong  tendency  toward  elimination  of  smaller  shops  and  com- 


Year 

Number 
of 
Establish- 
ments 

Proprietors 
and 
Firm 
Members 

Salaried 
Employees 

Wage- 
Earners 
(Average 
Number) 

Total 

Average 
Number  of 
Persons 
per  Estab- 
lishment 

1904  

216,180 

225,673 

519  556 

5  468  383 

6  213  612 

28  7 

1909  
1914  

268,491 
275,791 

273,265 
264,872 

790,267 
964  217 

6,615,046 
7,036,337 

7,678,578 
8,265  426 

28.8 
29  9 

Figure  I.    Table  Indicating  Size  of  Industrial  Establishments 

Adapted  from  the  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic 
Commerce,  1917,  page  209. 

bination  to  form  larger  enterprises.  This  movement  began 
in  the  eighties,  reached  its  maximum  about  1900,  and  has  again 
been  evidenced  in  several  industries  since  1908.  In  spite  of 
business  monopolies  and  the  rapid  growth  of  large  factories, 
the  number  of  shops  employing  from  5  to  100  persons  is  still 
very  large.  Figure  I  indicates  something  of  this  situation, 
although  the  number  of  small  enterprises  is  even  larger  than 


PRESENT-DAY   INDUSTRY  7 

these  figures  suggest  since  the  average  given  for  persons  per 
establishment  represents  a  balancing  of  many  small  concerns 
against  a  few  extremely  large  corporations. 

Our  manufacturing  concerns  are  widely  distributed,  as  is 


State 


Number  of 
Establish- 
ments 


Salaried 
Employees 


Average 
Number  of 

Wage- 
Earners 


Alabama 3,242 

Arizona 322 

Arkansas 2,604 

California 10,057 

Colorado 2,126 

Connecticut 4,104 

Delaware 808 

District  of  Columbia 514 

Florida 2,518 

Georgia 4,639 

Idaho 698 

Illinois 18,388 

Indiana 8,022 

Iowa 5,614 

Kansas 3,136 

Kentucky 4, 1 84 

Louisiana 2,211 

Maine 3,378 

Maryland 4,797 

Massachusetts 12,013 

Michigan 8,724 

Minnesota 5,974 

Mississippi 2,209 

Missouri 8,386 

Montana 939 

Nebraska 2,492 

Nevada 180 

New  Hampshire 1,736 

New  Jersey 9,742 

New  Mexico ; 368 

New  York 48,203 

North  Carolina 5,507 

North  Dakota 699 

Ohio , 15,658 

Oklahoma 2,518 

Oregon 2,320 

Pennsylvania 27,521 

Rhode  Island 2,190 

South  Carolina 1,885 

South  Dakota 898 

Tennessee 4,775 

Texas 5,084 

Utah 1,109 

Vermont 1,772 

Virginia 5,5o8 

Washington. 3,829 

West  Virginia 2,749 

Wisconsin 9, 104 

Wyoming 337 

j 


7,026 

849 

3,544 

26,637 
4,721 

25,112 
2,643 
2,011 
4,914 

9,661 

946 

95,130 

28,538 

14,097 

7,526 

9,131 

8,499 

5,265 

14,801 

59,234 

4L796 

17,623 

3.189 

28,386 

1,827 

6,079 

279 

4.374 

49,056 

493 

182,605 

8,541 

749 

82,748 

2,793 

4,431 

108,050 

8.8oi 

3,964 

796 

8,999 

11,474 

2,233 

2,726 

9,164 

8,088 

5,7i6 

20,538 

414 


78,717 
6.898 

41,979 
139,481 

27,278 
226,264 

22,155 

8,877 
55.608 

104,461 

8,919 

506,943 

197,503 

63,113 

41.259 

64,586 

77,665 

82,149 

111,585 
606,698 

271,090 

92,834 

46,702 

152,182 

13,704 

25,144 

3,655 

78,993 

373,605 

3,776 

[,057,857 

136,844 

3,275 

510,435 

17.443 

28,829 

924.478 

113,425 

7L9I4 

3,788 

74.373 

74.853 

13.894 

32,704 

102,820 

67,205 

71,078 

I94.3IQ 

2.989 


Figure  2.     Table  Showing  Distribution  of  Manufacturing  Enterprises  (1914) 

Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,   Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce, 

1917,  page  205. 


8 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


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PRESENT-DAY   INDUSTRY 


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10  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

indicated  by  Figure  2.  Particularly  in  the  West  where  hydro- 
electric power  is  available,  rapid  increases  in  the  number  of 
establishments  and  wage-earners  c#n  be  anticipated  in  the  next 
decade.  California,  now  the  twelfth  state  according  to  the 
number  of  employees  engaged  in  manufacturing,  increased  the 
value  of  its  manufactures  from  $67,000,000  in  1870,  to  $750,- 
000,000  in  1917.  In  1914  the  state  used  for  industrial  pur- 
poses about  500,000  primary  horse-power  developed  from 
hydroelectric  plants.  Four  years  later  the  amount  was  more 
than  50  per  cent  greater.  As  is  already  the  case  in  New 
England,  many  of  the  new  projects  throughout  the  West  are 
sure  to  be -developed  in  the  smaller  towns  and  cities,  thus 
further  extending  the  present  wide-spread  geographic  dis- 
tribution. 

One-Industry  Towns 

Smaller  towns  and  cities  with  diversified  industries  are 
exceptional.  Communities  have  built  up  in  many  cases  around 
a  single  manufacturing  plant  or  the  holdings  of  one  corpora- 
tion. Newport  News,  Virginia,  sends  the  majority  of  its 
wage-earners  into  one  local  shipyard;  Crockett,  California,  is 
the  community  center  for  the  California-Hawaiian  Sugar 
Refining  Company;  Ludlow,  Massachusetts,  was  built  and  is 
largely  owned  by  a  cordage  company,  the  Ludlow  Manufac- 
turing Associates.  Other  small  communities  are  devoted  to 
only  one  or  two  industries,  but  a  number  of  competing  or  only 
loosely  combined  firms  are  represented.  Thus  North  Attle- 
boro,  Massachusetts,  has  more  than  twenty  manufacturing 
jewelers,  while  Akron,  Ohio,  is  the  center  for  five  or  six 
large  concerns  and  nearly  a  score  of  smaller  factories  manu- 
facturing rubber  goods.  As  a  rule,  the  range  of  industries 
in  cities  under  100,000  population  does  not  include  more  than 
two  or  three  important  lines  with  a  scattering  of  small  shops 
engaged  in  other  activities. 


PRESENT-DAY   INDUSTRY  II 

Financial  Resources 

The  financial  resources  available  for  training  employees 
vary  greatly  in  the  different  industries.  The  amount  that  can 
be  devoted  to  such  purposes  is  affected  by  the  nature  of  the 
industry,  market  fluctuations,  the  size  of  the  firm,  and  the 
locality  in  which  it  is  situated.  A  prosperous,  progressive 
establishment  employing  10,000  persons  is  much  more  likely 
to  appropriate  generously  for  educational  activities  than  the 
conservative,  financially  embarrassed  plant  employing  only  100 
persons.  A  company  with  a  monopoly  of  the  local  labor 
market  is  much  less  apt  to  spend  money  on  personnel  activities 
than  a  firm  forced  into  competition  with  several  high-grade 
shops. 

In  the  same  way,  some  sections  of  the  country  are  better 
able  to  support  industrial  training  at  public  expense  than  are 
others.  The  per  capita  wealth  in  North  Carolina  is  $726.35, 
whereas  Nevada,  with  comparatively  few  industries  and  a 
strong  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  developing  them,  has  a 
per  capita  wealth  of  $4,135.35.  The  South  Atlantic  states 
from  Delaware  to  Florida  have  a  per  capita  wealth  less  than 
half  tha,t  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  Coast  states, 
with  a  corresponding  difference  in  willingness  and  ability  to 
support  vocational  education.  There  are  also  striking  dif- 
ferences in  the  ability  to  support  education  apparent  in  the 
several  cities  within  the  boundaries  of  each  state.  In  Massa- 
chusetts, for  example,  Wellesley,  Milton,  and  Brookline  have 
property  valuations  per  pupil  in  the  public  schools  ranging 
from  $20,000  to  $31,800,  while  ten  cities  in  the  same  popula- 
tion group  have  valuations  less  than  $4,000  per  pupil. 

Seasonal  Fluctuations 

If  the  majority  of  workers  remained  with  one  firm  for 
several  years  at  a  time,  or  if  they  even  worked  steadily  at 
the  same  trade  throughout  the  year,  the  problem  could  be 


12 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


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Figure  4.     Diagram  of  Seasonal  Labor  Fluctuations  in 
Data  from  the  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  Bureau  of  Foreign  and 


PRESENT-DAY    INDUSTRY 


13,000 
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Selected  Industries  Employing  about  10,000  Persons 

Domestic  Commerce,   1917.     Vertical  distance  indicates  number  of  persons  employed. 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 


200 
190 
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Figure  5.     Diagram  of  Seasonal  Labor  Fluctuations  in 
Data  from  the  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic, 


PRESENT-DAY   INDUSTRY 


200 
190 
180 
170 
160 


150 


ELECTRICAL  MACHINERY,  APPARATUS  AND  SUPPLIES  j 


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s?     2      2" 


j  WOOLEN  AND  WORSTED  GOODS  I 


Selected  Industries  Employing  over  100,000  Persons 

Commerce,  1917.     All  of  these  figures  are  affectecTby  the  growth  of  the  industry  in  question. 


l6  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

simplified  somewhat.  Figures  3,  4,  and  5  give  some  indication 
of  the  number  of  job  changes  brought  about  because  of 
seasonal  fluctuations.  Very  few  industries  show  differences 
less  than  5  per  cent  between  the  maximum  and  minimum 
number  of  persons  employed  during  the  year,  and  many  have 
fluctuations  of  10  to  25  per  cent. 

The  Statistical  Abstract  for  1917  gives  the  total  number 
of  persons  employed  in  all  manufacturing  industries  in  the 
United  States  for  each  month  for  the  year  1914.  Adding 
the  maximum  figures  regardless  of  the  month  in  which  they 
occur,  gives  a  total  of  7,707,592  wage-earners.  The  corre- 
sponding total  for  the  minimum  number  at  work  is  6,292,834. 
The  difference,  1,414,758,  represents  the  number  of  wage- 
earners  who  are  either  idle  for  some  time  or  seek  employment 
in  other  lines  of  work.  There  are  also  numerous  seasonal 
shifts  due  to  departmental  fluctuations  which  do  not  appear 
in  the  figures  cited  because  the  workers  are  merely  transferred 
to  some  other  part  of  the  plant.  It  is  therefore  reasonable 
to  estimate,  that  from  this  cause  alone,  not  less  than  1,500,000 
persons  are  employed  in  at  least  two  kinds  of  work  every 
year. 

Steadying  Employment 

Relatively  little  has  yet  been  accomplished  in  reducing 
seasonal  manufacturing  and  other  similar  causes  for  variations 
in  the  working  force.  Joseph  Willits  has  prepared  an  excel- 
lent statement  of  the  stabilizing  efforts  which  he  found  ought 
to  be  undertaken  in  Philadelphia.  This  statement,  "Steadying 
Employment,"  may  be  found  in  the  Supplement  to  the  Annals 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science, 
May,  1916.  Sumner  Slichter,  in  "The  Turnover  of  Factory 
Labor,"  has  summarized  the  methods  successfully  utilized  by 
concerns  throughout  the  United  States.  Only  the  more  im- 
portant measures  are  outlined  here,  together  with  some  sug- 


PRESENT-DAY    INDUSTRY  17 

gestions  as  to  their  bearing  upon  general  industrial  training. 

1.  The  major  part  of  the  force  may  be  held  during  periods 
of  unusual  business  depression  by  reducing  the  hours  and 
working  part-time. 

2.  Seasonal  fluctuations  due  to  variations  in  sales  or  dis- 
posal of  the  product  may  be  obviated  by: 

(a)  Discovering  new  markets  or  stimulating  sales  for 

off  seasons. 

(b)  Inducing  customers  to  place  orders  earlier. 

(c)  Developing  extra  lines  of  manufacture  to  fill  in  the 

dull  periods. 

(d)  Standardizing  goods  or  encouraging   retail  selling 

under  the  maker's  label  so  that  goods  may  be 
manufactured  for  .storage. 

(e)  Making  repairs  or  alterations,  or  performing  opera- 

tions on  special  parts  during  the  dull  season. 

(f)  Transfer  of  employees  from  slack  to  busy  depart- 

ments. 

(g)  Dovetailing   the   work   of   two   or   more   different 

plants,  so  that  employees  are  transferred  accord- 
ing to  seasonal  requirements. 

(h)  Maintaining  emergency  squadrons  which  assist  in 
doing  a  variety  of  different  kinds  of  work,  thus 
making  it  unnecessary  to  take  on  new  employees 
for  short  periods  of  time. 

3.  The  number  of  temporary  jobs  may  be  reduced  by: 

(a)  Planning  and  scheduling  work  to  give  an  even  flow 

throughout  the  year. 

(b)  Avoiding  short-time  congestion  in  a  small  number 

of  departments  by  the  use  of  emergency  squadrons 
or  by  improvements  in  scheduling. 

(c)  Distributing  maintenance  and  repair  work  through- 

out the  year. 


18  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

Transfers 

It  will  be  observed  that  many  of  these  proposals  make 
it  necessary  for  employees  to/be  transferred  from  one  kind 
of  work  to  another.  This  frequently  involves  a  second  course 
of  training;  it  may  be  necessary  to  send  groups  of  employees 
into  special  vestibule  classes  for  a  brief  period,  or  to  place 
them  under  the  care  of  a  corps  of  emergency  instructors. 
Changes  ought  to  be  scheduled  ahead  whenever  possible  so 
that  employees  may  be  apprised  of  future  changes  and  grad- 
ually made  ready  for  them  in  odd  hours. 

Transfers  almost  always  require  adjustments  in  wages. 
Some  unusual  incentive  or  extensive  reorganization  of  the 
plan  of  payment  must  often  be  resorted  to  before  workers 
can  be  induced  temporarily  to  undertake  a  different  line  of 
activity,  even  though  the  new  task,  at  slightly  lowered  wages, 
presents  the  only  alternative  to  unemployment.  Transfers  and 
training  to  eliminate  unemployment  or  turnover  are  thus  seen 
to  be  closely  related  to  the  questions  of  individual  adaptability 
and  the  adjustment  of  wage  rates.  Only  by  careful  study 
of  the  several  factors  in  each  case  and  by  consulting  the 
mental  attitudes  of  all  parties  to  the  agreement  can  a  success- 
ful plan  be  evolved. 

Labor  Turnover 

In  addition  to  persons  thrown  out  of  their  accustomed  em- 
ployment because  of  seasonal  fluctuations  is  the  much  greater 
number  affected  by  what  is  known  as  labor  turnover.  Only 
fragmentary  evidence  is  yet  available  as  to  the  exact  amount 
of  labor  turnover  throughout  the  United  States.  A  study 
made  by  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  during  the  summer 
of  1918  in  Detroit  and  Cleveland  showed  that  27  out  of  79 
plants  examined  had  turnover  percentages  greater  than  300 
per  cent  annually.  After  eliminating  the  separations  from 
service  due  to  military  duty,  there  still  remained  37  plants 


PRESENT-DAY   INDUSTRY 


where  the  turnover  ranged  from  200  to  over  500  per  cent. 
Sumner  Slichter  has  classified  the  turnover  in  105  establish- 
ments, including  commercial  and  industrial  concerns.  His 
method  of  computing  the  turnover  is  not  quite  accurate,  but 
the  errors  are  probably  not  large.  (See  Figure  6.)  Similar 
figures  gathered  from  plants  throughout  the  United  States 


Number  of 

Average 

Number  of 

Establish- 

of 

Termina- 

Size of  Turnover 

ments  with 
Turnover  of 

Maximum 
and 

tions 
of 

Respective 
Sizes 

Minimum 
Forces 

Employment 

200  per  cent  or  over  

ii 

12,788 

•*o,oi4 

100  per  cent  to  200  per  cent  

30 

69,797 

105,857 

80  per  cent  to  100  per  cent  

9 

24,913 

22,416 

60  per  cent  to    80  per  cent  

21 

60,021 

41,814 

40  per  cent  to    60  per  cent  

18 

^8,756 

19,  52  •* 

20  per  cent  to    40  per  cent  

ii 

19,029 

6,219 

Below  20  per  cent  

K 

774 

99 

Figure  6.     Table  Showing  Size  of  Labor  Turnover  in  105  Establishments 
Taken  from  "The  Turnover  of  Factory  Labor"  (page  22),  by  Sumner  H.  Slichter. 

show  that  turnover  percentages  of  less  than  50  per  cent  are 
exceptional,  that  a  few  entire  plants  and  occasional  depart- 
ments have  turnover  figures  ranging  from  350  to  1,000  per 
cent  or  more,  and  that  the  median  for  manufacturing  indus- 
tries in  normal  times  is  between  80  and  125  per  cent. 

Short-Term  Employees 

One  salient  feature  of  these  changes  in  personnel  is  that 
the  majority  of  them  take  place  among  a  comparatively  small 
group  of  employees  having  a  short  term  of  service.  This 
fact  has  significance  with  reference  to  the  question  of  training 
new  employees.  Figure  7  shows  that  76  per  cent  of  the 
separations  from  service  in  14  California  concerns  took  place 
among  employees  who  had  held  their  positions  less  than  three 


20 


TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


months.  Of  the  employees  remaining  on  the  pay-roll  at  the 
end  of  the  year  in  the  same  concerns,  only  38  per  cent  had 
been  in  service  less  than  three  months. 

The  study  made  of  plants  in  Ohio,  referred  to  above, 
showed  that  in  Cleveland  the  groups  with  continuous  service 
records  of  less  than  one  month,  although  representing  only 


PERIOD  OF  SERVICE 

EMPLOYEES  ON 
PAY-ROLL  AT 
END  OF  YEAR 

SEPARATIONS  FROM 
SERVICE  DURING 
THE  YEAR 

Number 

Per  Cent 

Number 

Per  Cent 

One  week  and  under  
Over  i  week  to  2  weeks  
Over  2  weeks  to  i  month  
Over  i  month  to  3  months 

692 
476 
950 
2,324 
1,145 
i,774 
1,481 
627 
633 
1,459 

6 

4 
8 
20 

10 

15 
13 
5 
5 
13 

3,946 
2,481 

3,177 
4,165 
2,096 
1,280 
•      525 

211 

I4O 

265 

22 

14 
17 
23 

II 
7 
3 

i 
i 

i 

Over  3  months  to  6  months  
Over  6  months  to  i  year  
Over  i  year  to  2  years  
Over  2  years  to  3  years  
Over  3  years  to  5  years  
Over  5  years  

Total 

11,561 

100 

18,286 

100 

Figure  7.     Table  Showing  Number  of  Separations  and  Length  of  Service  of 
Employees  in  14  California  Concerns 

Monthly  Labor  Review,    February,   1919.      Only  5  per  cent  of  this  turnover  was  due   to 

military  causes. 

ii  per  cent  of  the  total  number  employed  at  any  given  time, 
were  responsible  for  more  than  43  per  cent  of  the  "separa- 
tions"— that  is  to  say,  cases  of  quitting  service.  In  Detroit, 
the  service  groups  under  one  month  constituted  only  12.6  per 
cent  of  all  employees  but  gave  rise  to  51  per  cent  of  the 
turnover. 

It  was  this  fact  more  than  anything  else  which  enabled  the 
Ford  Motor  Company  to  maintain  a  turnover  record  of  32 
per  cent  or  less  throughout  the  year  1918  when  only  three 


PRESENT-DAY   INDUSTRY 


21 


other  plants  in  the  vicinity  were  able  to  get  theirs  below  100 
per  cent.  By  paying  high  wages  and  pursuing  other  satisfac- 
tory employment  policies,  the  labor  turnover  had  been  reduced 
from  370  per  cent  in  1913  to  16  per  cent  in  1916.  Separations 


1.395 
1.350 

-taesr 

U60 
UI5 

1,170 
1.125 
1,080 
1.035 


810 

765  : 

720* 

675  I 

630  1 

5ftS: 

540 

495 

450 

405 

960 

315 

no 

225 
180 
135 
90 


WZ  ltt»  MM    l»95  H96  1897   1198  1899  1900  1901    1902  1903  1904  1905  1906  1907  1908  1909  1910   1911     1912   1913    1914   1915   1916  1917    W» 

Term  of  Service  of  Employees  with  the  Company  on  January  I,  I9& 

Figure  8.     Diagram  of  Length  of  Service  of  Employees  in  a  New  England 

Factory 

From  a  census  taken  in  January,  1919.  The  vertical  distance  indicates  the  number  of 
employees,  and  the  horizontal  distance  the  term  of  service.  The  upper  portion  of  the 
curve  shows  that  nearly  half  of  the  persons  employed  had  been  with  the  company  less 

than  one  year. 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

from  service  became  almost  negligible  and  a  large  body  of 
employees  with  records  of  continuous  service  for  a  year  or 
more  was  built  up.  Despite  the  fact  that  other  companies 
in  Detroit  were  engaged  in  war  work  and  were  paying  higher 
wages  in  1918  than  the  Ford  Motor  Company,  these  persons 
remained  at  their  posts. 

Unskilled  and  Child  Labor 

Next  to  the  concentration  of  "separations"  among  short- 
term  employees,  the  most  significant  facts  with  reference  to 
turnover  are  that  the  amount  increases  rapidly  as  skill 
decreases,  and  that  it  is  greatest  among  children  from  13  to 
17  years  of  age.  The  results  of  investigations  by  Slichter  in 
various  occupations  lead  him  to  the  conclusion  that  "among 
skilled  tradesmen  the  turnover  rarely  runs  above  50  per  cent, 
and  indeed  in  most  cases  is  below  30  per  cent.  Among  com- 
mon laborers,  on  the  other  hand,  the  turnover  >is  rarely  below 
100  per  cent  and  is  usually  much  higher/' 

A  Typical  Factory 

Several  essential  principles  with  reference  to  turnover  and 
length  of  service  may  be  summarized  by  reference  to  Figures 
8  to  ii.1  As  shown  by  a  census  taken  in  January,  1919,  about 
50  per  cent  of  the  labor  force  in  the  company  under  considera- 
tion had  been  employed  for  less  than  one  year,  and  nearly 
one-third  of  the  organization  for  less  than  six  months.  The 
majority  of  the  short-term  employees  were  in  three  depart- 
ments, all  of  which  were  subject  to  large  seasonal  variations. 
Although  complete  records  were  not  available,  it  also  appeared 
that  these  departments  were  responsible  for  a  large  part  of 
the  labor  turnover. 


1  These  figures  are  from  an  unpublished  study  made  by  the  Harvard  Bureau  of  Voca- 
tional Guidance  assisted  by  Professor  Edward  D.  Jones  of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational 
Education. 


PRESENT-DAY   INDUSTRY 


1907    1968    1909    19IO     1911     1912     1913,  1914     1915    19(6     1917     1919 

335 
180 
135 
30 

40 
0 

/ 

,f 

s 

f 

_j 

..-i 

_«M_M«*- 

^~ 

-  —  f 

-*-* 

Department  A, 


450 
405 
360 
315 
370 
335 
180 

135 


1907    (908    1909    1910     1911      19)2     1913     1914    1915     1916     1917     1918 

Department  B 

Figure  9.     Diagram  of  Length  of  Service  of  Employees  in  Two  Departments  of 
the  Concern  Represented  in  Figure  8 

The  curve  for  nearly  every  department  in  this  company  shows  a  similar  configuration, 
proving  that  there  is  only  a  small  group  of  well-trained  employees  with  a  large  body  of 

shifting  employees. 


24  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

The  curves  of  Figures  10  and  u  show  the  number  of 
employees  in  two  typical  departments,  plotted  week  by  week 
for  a  period  of  three  years.  Department  "X"  manufactures 
a  seasonal  product  and  has  but  few  skilled  employees.  De- 
partment "Y"  is  not  subject  to  seasonal  disturbances  and  has 
a  larger  proportion  of  skilled  help.  The  Variations  in  the 
number  employed  at  points  a,  b,  and  c  in  Department  "X," 
as  well  as  practically  all  of  the  sharp  fluctuations  in  Depart- 
ment "Y,"  are  due  to  preventable  "separations"  and  needless 


Figure  10.     Diagram  of  Weekly  Fluctuations  in  the  Number  of  Employees  in 
Department  "Y"  Manufacturing  a  Staple  Commodity 

hiring  and  firing.  Little  or  no  effort  has  been  made  to  transfer 
workers  from  seasonal  departments  to  other  work  within  the 
plant  during  slack  periods,  nor  has  any  systematic  plan  been 
developed  for  dovetailing  the  work  in  this  factory  with  that 
in  other  plants  engaged  in  seasonal  work.  It  has  been  said, 
for  instance,  that  many  of  the  women  and  girls  employed  in 


PRESENT-DAY   INDUSTRY 


the  manufacture  of  jar  rings  go  into  the  confectionery  industry 
during  the  slack  months,  but  nothing  has  been  done  by  the 
companies  concerned  to  facilitate  such  transfers  for  their 
employees. 

Unemployment 

Unemployment  is  another  phase  of  occupational  maladjust- 
ment which  forced  itself  upon  the  attention  of  the  public  long 
before  any  study  had  been  made  of  labor  turnover.  The 


•%^/x 

~-^*~~  \ 


---  1917 
---  1916 


Figure  n.     Diagram  of  Weekly  Fluctuations  in  the  Number  of  Employees 
in  Department  "X"  Manufacturing  a  Seasonal  Product 

total  number  of  unemployed  in  the  United  States  was  estimated 
in  1911  at  4,500,000.  Studies  made  by  reliable  investigators 
in  1 6  large  cities  in  the  United  States  for  March  and  April, 
1915,  and  summarized  in  Bulletin  195,  Bureau  of  Labor  Sta- 
tistics, United  States  Department  of  Labor,  July,  1916, 
brought  to  light  the  following  facts : 


26  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

Number  of  families  investigated 401,548 

Number  of  persons  represented  by  the  study. .  1,694,895 
Number  of  wage-earners  represented  by  the 

study '. =T 647,394 

Total  unemployed 74,2i8 

Per  cent  of  wage-earners  unemployed H-5% 

Total  wage-earners  employed  only  part-time. .  *•    107,494 

Per  cent  of  wage-earners  on  part-time 16.6% 

Per  cent  on  part-time  and  unemployed. .......  28.1% 

The  highest  percentage  of  unemployment  reported  was  in 
Duluth,  where  20.3  per  cent  of  the  wage-earners  were  out 
of  work,  and  the  lowest  in  Bridgeport,  Connecticut,  where  4.3 
per  cent  were  unemployed  and  19.9  per  cent  were  engaged  in 
part-time  occupations. 

Causes 

During  the  war  period,  unemployment  ceased  to  be  an 
urgent  problem,  but  there  is  little  reason  to  suppose  that  we 
will  not  be  faced  by  it  again  in  the  near  future.  The  majority 
of  the  investigations  made  in  this  field  appear  to  show  that 
unemployment  is  most  wide-spread  among  unskilled  and  semi- 
skilled workers.  The  untrained,  the  physically  handicapped, 
and  those  low  in  intelligence  always  make  up  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  the  unemployed  than  their  relative  numbers  war- 
rant. Unemployment  frequently  results  in  the  partly  trained 
worker  losing  the  slight  advantage  gained,  so  that  he  is  easily 
discouraged  and  slips  back  into  the  unskilled  labor  group. 

Remedies 

The  suggestions  for  decreasing  unemployment  moijt  widely 
accepted  as  worthy  of  support  are: 

1.  Establishment  of  public  employment  offices. 

2.  Regulation  of  manufacturing  and  other  work  to  reduce 

seasonal  changes. 


PRESENT-DAY   INDUSTRY  27 

3.  Planning  construction  of  public  works  at  seasons  of 

unemployment. 

4.  Introduction  in  all  large  concerns  of  employment  de- 

partments to  handle  labor  questions. 

5.  Systematic  training  of  employees. 

6.  Special    training    for    those    who    are    mentally    or 

physically  handicapped. 

7.  Retraining  for  injured  workers  who  cannot  return  to 

their  former  occupations. 

Of  all  these  suggestions,  none  are  more  fraught  with  possi- 
bilities than  those  concerned  with  training. 


CHAPTER  II 

INADEQUATE   INDUSTRIAL   TRAINING  AND   ITS 

RESULTS 

Preparation  of  Young  Workers 

Although  a  well-balanced  program  of  training  must  always 
make  allowance  for  retraining,  for  promotions  and  transfers, 
and  for  the  progressive  growth  in  efficiency  of  older  workers, 
the  chief  concern  of  all  vocational  education  must  always  be 
the  preparation  of  young  workers  for  entrance  upon  their 
occupational  careers. 

A  consideration  of  the  number  of  young  persons  entering 
industrial  life  each  year,  their  physical  and  mental  status,  the 
nature  of  the  training  they  receive  in  educational  institutions, 
and  their  early  vocational  experiences  suggest  quite  as  many 
knotty  problems  as  those  arising  from  the  character  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  industries. 

Defects  of  Public  School  Systems 

Critical  examinations  of  public  school  systems,  conducted 
during  the  last  decade  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States, 
indicate  three  major  defects  in  elementary  and  secondary 
education  which  have  a  bearing  upon  vocational  success. 

1.  About  one-third  of  all  the  pupils  in  the  public  schools 
are  retarded  from  one  to  five  years  in  comparison  with  the 
normal  standards. 

2.  Less  than  half  of  the  children  entering  the  first  grade 
complete  the  work  of  the  eighth  grade,  and  only  one  child 
in  ten  graduates  from  high  school.     About  one-third  of  the 
school  population  is  eliminated  before  the  work  of  the  sixth 

28 


INADEQUATE   INDUSTRIAL   TRAINING 


29 


grade  is  completed  or  at  the  end  of  the  compulsory  education 
period  as  defined  by  state  laws. 

3.  The  majority  of  those  who  enter  employment  between 
the  ages  of  14  and  18  drift  aimlessly  from  job  to  job.  Legis- 
lative restrictions  prevent  them  from  entering  many  of  the 
trades,  so  they  begin  work  in  clerical  or  unskilled  positions, 
make  little  or  no  progress  in  the  acquisition  of  skill  or  knowl- 
edge, and  acquire  unfortunate  habits  and  vicious  mental 
attitudes. 

A  child  is  usually  regarded  as  over  age  or  retarded  who 
is  older  than  the  normal  age  for  his  school  grade.  It  is 
common  to  assume  a  two-year  span  for  the  standard  for 
each  grade,  assuming  as  normal  ages  6  to  7  for  the  first  grade, 
7  to  8  for  the  second,  and  13  to  14  for  the  eighth.  The  results 
of  an  investigation  of  retardation  published  by  George  D. 
Strayer  in  1911  are  summarized  in  Figure  12. 


133  Cities  of  25,000 
Population  or  Over 

1  86  Cities  of  Less 
than  25,000 
Population 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girls 

Of  normal  age  

56 

20 

10 

5 

2 

60 

18 
9 
3 

i 

54 

20 
II 

4 

2 

58 
18 

8 

3 

i 

i  year  over  age  

17  years  over  age 

3  years  over  age  

4  years  over  age  

Total  over  age  .  .  . 
Total  under  age  .  . 

38 

32 

38 

3i 

4 

4 

4 

5 

Figure  12.     Median   Percentages  of  the  Whole  Number  of  Boys  and  Girls 
Who  Were  of  Normal  Age,  Over  Age,  or  Under  Age  (1908) 

Quoted  from  Inglis,  "Principles  of  Secondary  Education,"  page   124. 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


Maryland  Survey 

A  survey  of  the  public  schools  of  Maryland  shows  even 
larger  percentages  of  retardatiorf  than  Strayer's  study  reveals 
and  also  brings  to  light  the  tendency  of  over-age  pupils  to 
drop  out  before  completing  the  elementary  school  course. 
(Figure  13.)  In  the  Maryland  report  it  is  estimated  that  if  all 
the  over-age  pupils  remained  to  complete  the  work  of  the 


Grade 

Per  Cent 
Under  Age 

Per  Cent 
Normal  Age 

Per  Cent 
Over  Age 

i          

O.  I 

30   3 

60.6 

0.4. 

17  .O 

85.7 

7.  . 

I.< 

15.8 

82.7 

1.8 

14.  5 

8V7 

ij  

1  .7 

17  .  C 

84.8 

6  

•?.  S 

ii.  8 

84.7 

7          

7.6 

IX.  7 

80.7 

8  

5.6 

18.3 

76.1 

I  

6.1 

20.8 

73.1 

II       

7.7 

2O.  2 

72.1 

Ill  

7.8 

21.  Q 

70.3 

IV               

17.  0 

70.  O 

44.0 

Total 

2    2 

'  2O.8 

77.  0 

Figure  13.     Table  Showing  Children  Under  Age,  Over  Age,  and  Normal  Age 
in  Maryland  Public  Schools 

Based  on  17.650  children  in  city  schools  in  the  winter  of  IQI5-     From  "Public  Education  in 
Maryland"  (page  88),  by  Flexner  and  Bachman. 

elementary  school  there  would  be  an  enrolment  in  the  Mary- 
land schools  of  about  4,000  children  16  years  of  age  or  older. 
"There  are,  as  a  matter  of  fact,"  says  the  report,  "only  165. 
It  is  thus  evident  that  probably  98  per  cent  of  the  children 
now  behind  their  grade  will  drop  out  before  completing  the 
course;  in  all  probability  they  will  lose  just  about  as  many 
grades,  as  they  are  now  in  arrears."  Reports  from  other 
states  show  similar  percentages  of  retardation. 


INADEQUATE    INDUSTRIAL   TRAINING  31 

Retarded  Pupils 

Some  retarded  pupils  are  always  able  to  make  rapid  prog- 
ress and  recover  the  lost  ground,  but  these  are  relatively  few 
in  number  and  constitute  a  less  grave  problem  than  those  who 
are  both  over  age  and  make  slow  progress.  In  regard  to  the 
latter  class,  a  survey  made  in  1915  reported  that  "in  Cleveland, 
22  per  cent  of  the  children  belong  to  this  class.  There  are 
more  than  1,500  of  them."  Recent  studies  of  employed  boys 
and  girls  serve  to  corroborate  this  opinion. 

A  typical  example  is  furnished  by  a  study,  made  in  1918 
by  representatives  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education 
in  co-operation  with  local  school  authorities,  of  287  boys  and 
117  girls  between  the  ages  of  14  and  16  employed  in  Wil- 
mington, Delaware.  The  following  table  shows  the  number 
who  had  been  greatly  retarded  in  their  studies,  a  direct  cause 
in  many  cases  of  their  leaving  school.1 

Number   of   Years   Retarded  Boys  Girls 

Two  years  or  more 45-2%        73-5% 

Three  years  or  more 22.2  36.6 

In  the  same  city,  18  per  cent  of  the  children  still  in  school 
aged  13,  and  28  per  cent  of  those  aged  14  were  two  or  more 
years  behind  their  normal  school  grades. 

Prevalence  of  Child  Labor 

One  of  the  gravest  problems  for  industrial  education  is 
created  by  the  large  number  of  pupils  who  leave  school  between 
the  ages  of  14  and  16  years.  The  Cleveland  Survey  found 
that  one  child  in  six  left  before  the  age  of  14;  at  the  age  of 
15  nearly  half  were  gone;  at  the  age  of  16  two-thirds  had 
dropped  out;  at  the  age  of  17  only  one  in  five  remained. 


1  Adapted   from    "Industrial    Education    in    Wilmington,    Delaware."     United    States 
Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1918,  No.  25,  page  46. 


TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


The  Chicago  Bureau  of  Vocational  Guidance  reported  in 
1916  on  an  investigation  of  6,270  employed  minors  from 
12  to  19  years  of  age,  a  group , intended  to  be  representative 
of  conditions  in  the  city.  It  was  found  that  2,276  of  these 
children  were  between  13  and  16  years  of  age  and  had  left 
school  in  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades.  Of  12,583 
children  who  received  their  working  permits  in  Chicago  during 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1915,  8,570,  or  68  per  cent,  had 
not  reached  the  fifteenth  birthday,  and  2,720,  or  21  per  cent, 
were  just  14  years  of  age,  the  compulsory  age  limit. 


AGE 

1910  CENSUS  REPORT 

ESTIMATED  FOR  1918 

Gainfully 
Employed 

Not  in 
School 

Total 
Number 

Gainfully 
Employed 

Not  in 
School 

BOYS 

4,389,732 
774,109 
3,615,623 

2,197,740 
350,140 
1,847,600 

6,587,472 
1,124,249 
5,463,223 

3,838,088 
460,739 
3,377,349 

3,833,581 
432,143 
3,401,438 

7,671,669 
892,882 
6,778,787 

6,362,628 
1,798,449 
4,564,179 

6,403,719 
1,770,898 
4,632,821 

12,766,347 
3,569,347 
9,197,000 

4,640,000 
820,000 
3,820,000 

2,490,000 
390,000 
2,100,000 

7,130,000 
1,210,000 
5,920,000 

4,39O,ooo 
510,000 
3,880,000 

4,350,000 
480,000 
3,870,000 

8,740,000 
990,000 
7,750,000 

14  and  15  years  

16  to  20  years                      .  .  . 

GIRLS 

14  and  15  years    

BOTH  SEXES 
14  to  20  years  

16  to  20  years  

Figure  14.     Table  Showing  Number  of  Children  Gainfully  Employed  and  Not 

in  School 

The  Vocational  Summary,  September,   1918.     Published  by  the  Federal  Board  for 
Vocational  Education. 

The  extent  to  which  children  under  20  years  of  age  are 
employed  in  the  United  States  and  the  number  in  the  indus- 
tries is  indicated  in  Figures  14  and  15. 

Only  a  few  states  have  enacted  satisfactory  legislation 
regarding  child  labor  or  made  adequate  provision  for  the  super- 
vision of  employed  minors.  The  United  States  Revenue  Act 
of  1918  enacted  after  the  Federal  Child  Labor  Law  had  been 
declared  unconstitutional  by  the  Supreme  Court,  should  have 


INADEQUATE    INDUSTRIAL   TRAINING 


33 


INDUSTRY 

10  TO  13  YEARS 

14  TO  15  YEARS 

1  6  TO  20  YEARS 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Building  and  hand  trades.. 

4,403 
597 
410 

322 
30 
46 
252 
52 

20 

270 
123 

177 
428 
2,827 
700 
19 
99 

22 
556 
6,371 
631 
149 
140 
962 
24 
17 

605 
9 
39 

267 
143 
249 

£ 

i 

IO 

4 
93 
58 
29 
73 
12 
39 
55 
66 
5,440 
922 
284 
130 
881 
14 
15 

19,144 
2,264 
4,349 

3,487 
770 
677 
2,306 
769 
1,058 
3,479 
1,657 
5,379 
3,326 
7,98o 
2,965 
880 
1,554 
429 
9,025 
14,449 
2,532 
2,713 
3,455 
3,205 

'18 

8,513 
142 
618 

5,858 
4,954 
3,308 
1,080 
2,582 
59 
227 
76 
3,777 
346 
144 
689 
549 
495 
1,836 
2,457 
14,816 
7.279 
6,153 
4,396 
5,5i8 
696 
818 

237,663 
16,120 
16,607 

30,183 
7,696 
4,178 
17,649 
4,636 
18,336 
48,892 
18,975 
29,113 
19,548 
67,194 
i5,33o 
5,478 
n,3i3 
1,995 
54,044 
42,256 
8,796 
8,717 
13.589 
15,943 
13.535 
7,529 

89.013 
778 
2,988 

38,734 
40,950 
18,342 

6,121 

io,347 
1,407 
2,223 
977 
24,004 
2,418 
1,067 
3,612 
3,582 
2,980 
7,017 
27,998 
50,796 
29,358 
23,573 
20,231 
29.699 
8,683 
5,113 

Brick,  tile,  and  terra-cotta  factories.. 
Glass  factories  . 

Clothing  factories  (suits,  cloaks,  and 
overalls)  ...                                      .    . 

Clothing  factories  (except  above)  .... 
Shirt,  collar  and  cuff  factories.      .  .  . 

Bakeries 

Candy  factories  

Blast  furnaces  and  steel  rolling-mills.  . 

Shoe  factories       

Furniture  factories  

Saw-  and  planing-mills  .                ... 

Other  wood-working  factories  

Jewelry  factories 

Tinware  and  enamelware  factories.  .  . 
Box  factories,  paper        

Cotton-mills              .             

Knitting-mills  <  

Silkmills                                    .         ... 

Woolen  and  worsted  mills  

Cigar  and  tobacco  factories 

Electrical  supply  factories  

Rubber  factories 

Figure  15.     Table  Showing  the  Number  of  Minors  Employed  in  Selected 
Industries 

Census  Report  for  1910,  Vol.  IV,  pages  312-410. 

an  excellent  effect  upon  progress  in  this  field  if  it  can  be 
enforced  for  a  reasonable  trial  period.2  Better  vocational 
guidance  and  training  for  these  children  cannot  be  expected 
until  the  hours  of  labor  have  been  shortened  and  the  com- 
pulsory school  age  extended. 


2  United  States  Revenue  Law  of  1918.     Title  XII. 

Section  1200.  That  ....  any  mine,  quarry,  mill,  cannery,  workshop,  factory,  or 
manufacturing  establishment  situated  in  the  United  States  in  which  children  under  the  age 
of  fourteen  years  have  been  employed  or  permitted  to  work,  or  children  between  the  ages 
of  fourteen  and  sixteen  have  been  employed  or  permitted  to  work  more  than  eight  hours 
in  any  day  or  more  than  six  days  in  any  week,  or  after  the  hour  of  seven  o'clock  post  meridian, 
or  before  the  hour  of  six  o'clock  ante  meridian,  during  any  portion  of  the  taxable  year, 
shall  pay  for  each  taxable  year,  in  addition  to  all  other  taxes  imposed  by  law,  an  excise 
tax  equivalent  to  10  per  centum  of  the  entire  net  profits  received  or  accrued  for  such  year, 
from  the  sale  or  disposition  of  the  product  of  such  mine,  quarry,  mill,  cannery,  workshop, 
factory,  or  manufacturing  establishment. 

Section  1207.  That  as  used  in  this  title  the  term  "taxable  year"  shall  have  the  same 
meaning  as  provided  for  the  purposes  of  income  tax  in  section  200.  The  first  taxable 
year  for  the  purposes  of  this  title  shall  be  the  period  between  sixty  days  after  the  passage 
of  this  Act  and  December  31,  1919,  both  inclusive,  or  such  portion  of  such  period  as  is 
included  within  the  fiscal  year  (as  defined  in  section  200)  of  the  taxpayer. 

Bill  approved  by  the  President,  February  24,  1919;   took  effect  April  25,  1919. 


34 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 


Waste  of  Child  Labor 

The  losses  to  employers  as  well  as  to  children  from  early 
employment  are  largely  due  to  beginning  work  in  low-grade 
tasks,  lack  of  training  for  promotion,  and  excessive  labor 
turnover.  State  restrictions,  the  skill,  strength,  and  technical 
requirements  inherent  in  many  kinds  of  work,  and  the  apparent 
attractiveness  of  "office"  jobs,  account  for  the  pronounced 
tendency  to  begin  as  messengers,  salespersons,  office  boys,  or 
in  clerical  positions.  Those  who  do  go  into  the  shops  imme- 


NUMBER 
OF  JOBS 

TIME  EMPLOYED 

Less  than 
3  Months 

3  to  6 

Months 

6  to  9 
Months 

9  to  12 

Months 

12  to  15 

Months 

15  to  18 
Months 

18  to  21 

Months 

21  to  24 

Months 

i 

183 
82 
35 
13 
2 

120 

95 
55 
23 
II 
5 
I 
I 
I 

92 

72 

58 
28 
15 

7 

2 

46 
47 
43 

22 

16 
7 

59 

47 

% 

21 

4 
3 

2 

19 
37 
34 
17 
10 
7% 

2 
4 

I 

18 
17 
25 
23 
9 
8 
5 

4 
I 

4 

.1 

21 
XO 
9 
3 

2 

I 

a  

4  

c 

6::::::::: 

::::::::: 

9 

10  

II  . 

12  

Total  No.  of 
boys  

3IS 

312 

274 

181 

211 

131 

no 

73 

Figure  16.    Table  Showing  Industrial  Histories  of  Chicago  Boys  from  the 

Elementary  Grades 

Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Vocational  Guidance  of  the  Chicago  Public  Schools  for  1916,  page  33. 


diately  after  leaving  school  are  discouraged  by  the  lack  of 
suitable  incentives  and  by  the  nature  of  the  work  open  for 
them  to  do;  constant  changing  from  job  to  job  is  the  natural 
consequence. 

Chicago's  experience  in  this  regard,  as  shown  in  Figure 
1 6,  is  typical  of  reports  from  cities  throughout  the  country. 
The  table  presents  the  records  for  1,607  boys  who  came  from 
the  elementary  grades  and  whose  industrial  histories  were 


INADEQUATE   INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING  35 

complete  for  the  periods  shown  in  the  table.  Girls  from  the 
elementary  grades  changed  positions  almost  as  frequently  as 
the  boys.  Over  26  per  cent  of  a  group  of  3,679  children 
whose  employment  stories  were  compiled  left  their  first  posi- 
tion before  completing  one  month.  Only  6  per  cent  stayed  a 
year  and  only  3  per  cent  remained  with  the  first  employer  two 
years  or  more.  Of  those  under  16  who  had  been  out  of 
school  from  one  to  two  years,  over  50  per  cent  worked  less 
than  half  the  time. 

A  similar  study  of  working  children  in  Waltham,  Massa- 
chusetts, showed  that  58  per  cent  of  those  employed  for  less 
than  two  years  had  held  three  or  more  different  positions.8 
The  school  survey  of  Wilmington,  Delaware,  referred  to 
above,  tabulates  the  number  of  different  jobs  held  by  587 
working  boys  and  girls  aged  14  and  15.  Of  these  children, 
77  had  shifted  positions  from  3  to  10  times,  and  151  had 
each  worked  for  two  different  employers. 

The  amount  of  shifting  in  most  cities  appears  to  be  less 
among  older  children  and  among  high  school  graduates,  but 
the  general  statement  holds  good  that  full-time  employment 
as  it  is  carried  on  in  the  industries  at  the  present  time  is  a 
seriously  wasteful  process  for  both  children  and  employers. 

Illiteracy 

.According  to  the  census  of  1910,  there  were  in  the  United 
States,  5,516,163  persons  who  could  not  write  in  any  language. 
According  to  the  same  census,  there  were  2,953,011  foreign- 
born  whites  10  years  of  age  and  over  who  were  unable  to 
speak  English.  In  the  years  just  preceding  the  war,  owing 
to  the  great  increase  in  immigration,  the  number  of  non- 
English-speaking  people  in  the  country  showed  a  decided 
growth. 


s  Abels,  M.  H.,  "From  School  to  Work."      Children's  Bureau,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Labor,  19x7,  page  53. 


36  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

Of  the  13,377,087  immigrants  entering  the  country  be- 
tween 1900  and  1914,  11,726,606  were  14  years  of  age  or 
over  and  consequently  beyond  the  school  age.  A  large  number 
of  these  people  had  enjoyed  some  educational  opportunities 
before  coming  to  the  United  States.  But  those  opportunities 
were  limited  and  of  course  left  them  without  training  either 
in  our  language  or  in  American  ideals. 

Americanization  Work 

Although  the  education  of  our  non-English-speaking  popu- 
lation is  primarily  a  public  duty,  there  is  much  that  industry 
can  do  to  co-operate  with  public  agencies.  Industry  suffers 
at  the  same  time  that  the  community  does.  Inability  to  under- 
stand English  frequently  results  in  accidents  to  the  workman. 
Because  he  cannot  talk  with  his  English-speaking  fellow- 
employees,  he  has  little  or  no  sympathy  with  them.  This  tends 
to  throw  the  non-English-speaking  employees 'into  groups  and 
if  there  is  a  troublemaker  in  a  group,  as  often  happens,  he 
can  foster  misunderstandings.  Also  the  man  who  speaks  no 
English  has  only  a  limited  contact  with  his  foreman.  This 
leads  to  confusion  and  lack  of  understanding,  in  the  course 
of  which  the  non-English-speaking  worker  becomes  dissatisfied 
with  his  treatment,  or  grows  to  feel  that  the  work  is  beyond 
his  capacity.  When  he  decides  to  seek  employment  elsewhere 
there  is  little  opportunity  for  the  employment  department  to 
discover  the  real  cause  of  the  separation. 

Productive  Service 

With  the  development  of  applied  science  and  mathematics 
and  the  growth  of  scientific  management,  there  has  come  into 
industry  a  new  point  of  view  with  respect  to  the  kind  of 
service  which  ought  to  be  rendered  by  skilled  workmen  and 
executives.  The  really  valuable  employee  is  no  longer  merely 
an  artisan.  He  must  be  something  of  an  inventor,  a  planner, 


INADEQUATE    INDUSTRIAL   TRAINING  37 

capable  of  solving  practical  difficulties  by  the  application  of 
scientific  principles,  and  willing  to  offer  suggestions  for  the 
progressive  modification  of  the  practices  of  the  shop.  The 
worker  who  is  taught  nothing  except  rule-of -thumb  methods 
becomes  a  hindrance  to  progress.  He  has  not  been  habituated 
to  subject  his  own  habits  or  the  operations  of  other  workmen 
to  critical  examination.  Irregular  progress  in  learning  the 
several  elements  of  the  trade,  the  lack  of  any  instruction  in 
the  principles  of  industrial  organization  and  management, 
little  or  no  practical  schooling  in  trade  mathematics  or  applied 
science,  and  the  unsympathetic  attitude  of  foremen  and  jour- 
neymen toward  the  learner,  go  far  toward  explaining  the  back- 
wardness of  many  of  our  important  industries. 

Possibility  of  Progress 

When  we  compare  conditions  in  the  textile  mills,  the  shoe 
factories,  and  the  shipyards,  as  they  were  managed  before 
the  war,  with  the  surprising  progress  evidenced  in  agriculture, 
in  industrial  chemistry,  in  the  design  of  electrical  machinery, 
and  in  civil  engineering,  it  is  easy  to  realize  the  importance 
of  thorough  technical  training  and  the  planned  development 
of  intelligent  experts.  Many  of  our  mills  and  factories  are 
using  exactly  the  same  methods  as  fifty  years  ago,  and  their 
workmen  live  in  surroundings  quite  as  unsanitary  and  un- 
wholesome as  those  which  then  existed.  The  implications  of 
the  data  contained  in  Figures  17,  18,  and  19  are  unavoidable. 

Government  funds  have  been  appropriated  only  recently 
for  researches  in  industry  and  the  majority  of  the  studies 
made  are  of  too  general  a  character  to  reach  the  conditions 
which  most  need  to  be  corrected.  If  only  half  as  much  money 
and  energy  as  have  been  expended  by  colleges,  the  government, 
and  private  individuals  and  institutions  in  fostering  agriculture 
had  been  devoted  to  thorough  studies  of  personnel  problems 
in  textile-mills,  in  the  clothing  industry,  factories  making 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 


rubber  goods,  steelmills,  shipyards,  shoe  factories,  etc.,  many 
of  the  worst  abuses  would  long  since  have  been  corrected. 

Much  the  same  thing  may  8e  said  of  some  of  the  skilled 
trades  practiced  in  small  shops,  such  as  blacksmithing,  core- 
making  and  molding,  boiler-making,  and  certain  of  the  build- 


Municipalities 

1910 

1912 

1914 

1916 

Textile  Cities: 
Lawrence     .  .         .  . 

168 

T  -2  f 

I4O 

116 

New  Bedford  

1  80 

*-OJ 

Zr6 

I  ^O 

I  3O 

Fall  River 

186 

I  C  I 

A  o^ 

161 

AoV 

Lowell  

231 

*o* 

184. 

IA7 

I  ^O 

Taunton  

212 

171 

•"•*»•/ 
123 

»>*» 

1^6 

Other  Cities: 
Boston 

I  2  A. 

117 

IO3 

104 

Worcester 

I  37 

**l 

133 

*Mfl 

JOC 

IOO 

Cambridge  

IOO 

07 

***3 

OO 

80 

Springfield. 

126 

IO2 

Qf 

Od. 

Lynn 

IOO 

112 

yj 
nr 

V't 

gc 

Somerville 

IO2 

78 

7O 

67 

Brockton 

IO2 

IOO 

»** 

IO3 

u/ 
02 

Maiden  

QO 

84 

0"\ 

66 

Newton 

84 

76 

c-8 

62 

The  State 

T-J-2 

117 

j" 
1  06 

IOO 

Figure  17.     Table  Showing  Infant  Deaths  per  1,000  Live  Births  in 
Massachusetts  Municipalities.     (Compare  with  Figure  18.) 

Seventy-fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Massachusetts. 

• 

ing  trades.  A  few  schools  have  been  established  for  the 
trades,  but  they  teach  only  the  elements  of  skill  and  technical 
knowledge,  and  they  produce  but  slight  effect  upon  the  customs 
of  the  trade  as  a  whole.  Trade  apprenticeship  has  been 
divorced  from  any  systematic  training  and  has  brought  about 
practically  the  same  undesirable  results  as  the  upgrading  of 
factory  helpers  or  improvers  without  the  guidance  of  trained 
instructors. 


INADEQUATE   INDUSTRIAL   TRAINING 


39 


CITY 


Deaths  per  1,000  Births 
Among  Children 
Under  i  Year 


Amsterdam. . 
Barcelona.  . 

Belfast 

Berlin 

Birmingham 
Bremen .... 

Breslau 

Bucharest.  . 
Budapest . . . 
Copenhagen . 
Dresden.  . . . 
Edinburgh. . 
Florence. . . . 
Glasgow. . . . 
Hamburg. . . 

Leipzig 

Liverpool..  . 
London .... 

Lyons 

Moscow. . . . 

Paris 

Prague 

Petrograd . . . 
Stockholm. . 

Vienna 

Zurich 

New  York . . 


66.8 

143-4 
144.2 

137-3 
128.9 
105.1 
171.7 
203.4 
149.6 
102.7 
116.8 

97-7 
126.0 
128.3 
113.6 
142.9 
132.6 
105.4 

87.3 
278.7 

99-3 
113.1 
228.5 

66.5 
156.0 

91.0 

102.0 


Figure  18.     Table  Showing  Deaths  from  all  Causes  among  Children  under 
I  Year  of  Age  in  European  Cities  and  New  York  (1913) 

Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  Department  of  Health  of  the  City  of  New  York,  August,  1914, 

page  198. 

A  Training  Program 

From  the  brief  sketch  of  industrial  conditions  thus  far 
presented,  several  conclusions  may  be  reached  regarding  the 
components  of  a  satisfactory  program  of  training.  Because 
of  the  great  diversification  and  wide  geographical  distribution 
of  manufactures,  and  the  existence  of  relatively  large  num- 
bers of  small  plants,  the  training  of  employees  will  always  be 


TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


a  local  and  individual  matter.  General  plans  can  be  prepared 
for  the  leading  lines  of  work  in  the  more  important  industries, 
but  even  then  the  actual  instruction  must  be  modified  to  suit 
the  immediate  situation. 

Seasonal  fluctuations  in  the  demand  for  labor  and  labor 
unrest  will  force  manufacturers  for  some  years  to  come  to 


Deaths  per  !,000  Population 
Textile  Cities 

Deaths  under  1  Year  per  1,000  Births 

pnii    River        !7  1  __________ 

Other  Cities: 

°l   ft  ___________               _______ 

MnMrn                11       ______ 

Nrwtnn                  10       ______ 

Figure    19.     Mortality   Statistics   of   Textile   Cities   Compared   with   Other 
Municipalities  in  Massachusetts  (1918) 

Seventy-Fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Massachusetts  on  Births,  Marriages,  and 

Deaths. 

train  and  retrain  adults  as  well  as  younger  persons.  The 
groups  of  factory  operatives  to  be  trained  are  likely  to  change 
constantly  from  month  to  month.  Advancement  should  be 
entirely  according  to  individual  ability,  and  teaching  methods 
require  constant  adaptation  to  the  experience  and  previous 
education  of  the  learner.  The  amount  of  instruction  necessary 
in  the  individual  case  may  vary  from  an  hour's  trip  through 
the  factory,  a  brief  explanation  of  the  company's  rules  and 
policies,  and  a  few  minutes  spent  in  becoming  acquainted  with 


INADEQUATE    INDUSTRIAL   TRAINING  41 

the  peculiarities  of  the  workshop,  to  a  five  years'  apprentice- 
ship, supplemented  after  graduation  by  evening  or  part-time 
courses  in  foremanship,  employment  management,  factory 
control,  and  advanced  technical  subjects. 

The  Duty  of  Industry 

The  educational  activities  of  the  factory  of  the  future  will 
be  planned  to  eliminate  faulty  selection  and  placement  of  em- 
ployees, to  decrease  the  number  of  desirable  persons  who 
leave  or  who  are  discharged  because  of  faulty  training  or  the 
lack  of  training  at  the  start,  to  shorten  the  time  lost  by  new 
employees  in  reaching  maximum  production,  to  prepare  better 
leaders,  and  to  reduce  losses  arising  from  waste  of  materials, 
slow  and  inefficient  methods,  ill  health,  unnecessary  fatigue, 
and  obstructive  policies.  This  implies  a  broad  curriculum,  for 
it  means  planning  education  for  everyone  from  the  general 
superintendent  down.  It  implies  sufficient  flexibility  to  meet 
changing  demands  or  emergencies,  and  enough  breadth  of 
vision  and  soundness  of  policy  to  create  a  stable,  intelligent 
working  force. 

Obligations  of  the  Public 

The  peculiar  interests  of  public  educational  agencies  are 
to  prevent  the  waste  from  unsatisfactory  employment  and  idle- 
ness among  children  from  14  to  18,  to  secure  better  vocational 
guidance,  to  reduce  the  amount  of  unnecessary  and  wasteful 
shifting  from  job  to  job,  and  to  find  ways  and  means  for 
co-operating  with  the  industries  in  giving  preparatory  voca- 
tional training  and  extension  education  for  citizenship,  home- 
making,  health,  thrift,  and  the  use  of  leisure  time.  A  length- 
ened period  of  compulsory  education,  part-time  schooling, 
Americanization,  and  a  more  generous  attitude  toward  the 
use  of  public  funds  for  improving  specific  occupational  effi- 
ciency are  among  the  immediate  national  possibilities. 


CHAPTER  III 

EARLIER  FORMS  OF  APPRENTICESHIP 

Historical  Background 

The  close  of  the  World  War  has  left  us  with  a  confusion 
of  fresh  experiences  and  impulses  in  education.  Those  respon- 
sible for  interpreting  and  adapting  these  experiences  and 
directing  the  new  forces  are  confronted  with  a  task  of  stag- 
gering magnitude.  The  necessity  rests  upon  them  of  laying 
hold  of  every  means  by  which  this  responsibility  may  be  the 
more  successfully  discharged.  Perhaps  nothing  is  more  im- 
portant than  to  make  sure  that  while  their  faces  are  to  the 
front  they  are  not  unmindful  of  what  is  behind.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  assume,  because  some  of  the  problems  of  industry 
are  new,  that  their  educational  aspects  are  not  beset  by  ex- 
tremely powerful  and  stubborn  traditions.  The  scope  of  the 
present  volume  does  not  permit  more  than  a  brief  glance 
backward.  It  is  possible  only  to  consider  briefly  the  significant 
outlines  of  the  growth  of  industrial  education.  Since  the 
apprentice  system  is  our  oldest  form  of  systematic  vocational 
training  it  is  easier  to  organize  certain  portions  of  the  account 
about  the  story  of  its  development.  With  apprenticeship, 
therefore,  we  shall  begin  our  inquiry  into  the  historical  back- 
ground of  the  industrial  situation  as  it  exists  today. 

Beginnings  of  Trade 

It  is  possible  to  trace  the  beginning  of  our  modern  system 
of  trade  apprenticeship  to  the  European  guilds  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  early  history  of  these  trade  associations  is  inter- 
woven with  the  rise  of  the  medieval  towns.  From  the  time 

42 


EARLIER  FORMS   OF  APPRENTICESHIP  43 

of  Theodoric  to  the  reign  of  Frederick  Barbarossa  there  were 
few  towns;  the  majority  of  the  population  of  England,  Ger- 
many, and  northern  and  central  France  lived  on  great  estates 
held  by  feudal  lords  or  by  church  officials.  About  the  year 
1000,  town  life,  which  had  been  the  center  of  Greek  and 
Roman  civilization,  began  to  reappear  in  western  Europe.  At 
first  the  townspeople  were  little  better  than  serfs,  paying  heavy 
dues  to  the  lord  or  monastery  upon  whose  land  the  town  was 
situated.  With  the  rapid  growth  of  trade  during  the  later 
Middle  Ages,  merchants  began  to  come  from  the  far  East, 
offering  rich  fabrics,  precious  stones,  perfumes,  drugs,  porce- 
lains, and  spices  for  sale  or  barter.  This  encouraged  the 
artisans  in  the  small  communities  to  produce  a  surplus  of 
goods  above  what  they  themselves  needed,  and  to  sell  or  ex- 
change their  wares  for  the  tempting  articles  brought  from  a 
distance  The  West  soon  learned  how  to  make  silk,  linen,  and 
cotton  fabrics  as  well  as  woolen  cloth.  The  manufacture  of 
glass  was  introduced  and  the  development  of  numerous  other 
arts  and  crafts  began  which  made  possible  the  beautiful  cathe- 
drals and  town  halls  of  a  later  century.  As  the  people  gained 
in  independence  through  trade  and  manufacture,  they  began 
to  organize  insurrections  against  the  landowning  ecclesiastics 
and  the  nobility.  Charters,  which  granted  the  right  to  regulate 
industry  and  commerce,  were  either  won  by  force  of  arms 
or  purchased  for  the  towns  and  the  old  dues  or  services  were 
either  abolished  or  changed  into  taxes. 

Formation  of  Guilds 

The  tradesmen  in  these  medieval  towns  were  both  artisans 
and  merchants,  each  conducting  his  own  manufactory  and 
offering  his  goods  for  sale.  Within  each  town,  those  who 
belonged  to  a  particular  trade — the  weavers,  the  tailors,  the 
armorers,  the  bakers — formed  a  union  or  guild  to  protect  their 
local  interests.  In  time  the  influence  of  the  guilds  increased 


44  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

until  they  were  able  to  enforce  minute  regulations  as  to  the 
way  in  which  the  trade  was  to  be  practiced,  the  daily  hours  of 
labor,  the  time  to  be  spent  in  learning  the  trade,  and  the  number 
of  apprentices  allowed  for  each  master  craftsman. 

The  Guild  and  the  Trade  Union 

The  guilds  differed  from  our  modern  trade  unions  in 
several  important  ways.  For  one  thing,  membership  in  the 
guilds,  except  during  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
was  composed  entirely  of  the  master  workmen  who  owned 
the  shops,  tools,  or  machines.  Apprentices  and  journeymen 
were  excluded  from  meetings  and  had  no  voice  in  determining 
the  policy  of  the  organization.  For  another,  much  of  the 
power  of  the  guilds  was  derived  from  the  fact  that  their 
regulations  could  be  enforced  by  government  authority.  For 
example,  in  Paris,  if  it  was  learned  that  a  journeyman  gold- 
beater had  illegally  set  up  a  shop  for  himself,  a  representative 
of  the  guild  went  to  the  offender's  house,  accompanied  by  a 
town  officer  and  the  offender's  tools  and  materials  were  seized. 
The  offender  himself  might  be  sent  to  the  galleys  for  a  three- 
year  term  at  hard  labor.  He  could  count  himself  fortunate 
if  he  were  let  off  with  a  heavy  fine  and  the  loss  of  every 
chance  of  ever  becoming  a  master. 

Apprenticeship — Its  Meaning 

While  a  young  man  was  learning  his  trade,  he  lived  in  the 
home  of  a  "master  workman"  as  an  apprentice.  The  usual 
term  of  apprenticeship  was  from  five  to  nine  years.  A  few 
simple  trades  could  be  learned  in  three  years,  but  it  took  ten 
years  to  become  a  journeyman  goldsmith.  The  apprentice 
received  no  financial  remuneration  and  in  many  cases  even 
paid  a  high  premium  for  the  opportunity,  but  the  indenture 
or  agreement  provided  for  certain  other  rewards.  Jonathan 


EARLIER  FORMS   OF  APPRENTICESHIP  45 

French    Scott    in    ' 'Historical    Essays    on    Apprenticeship" 
describes  the  system  as  follows: 

These  indentures  show  that  the  chief  duty  of  the  ap- 
prentice was  to  serve  his  master  faithfully,  not  only  in  busi- 
ness, but  in  the  performance  of  household  tasks  or  other 
services;  the  master  was  obliged  to  teach  the  lad  his  trade, 
to  house,  feed,  and  clothe  him.  More  than  this,  he  was 
supposed  to  give  the  youth  such  moral  and  religious  training 
as  a  boy  of  immature  years  would  naturally  require.  In  a 
word,  it  was  his  duty  to  prepare  the  boy  to  be  not  merely  a 
good  craftsman  but  a  good  citizen  as  well.  The  closeness  of 
the  personal  relationship  between  the  two  is  clearly  brought 
out  by  the  fact  that  not  rarely  the  apprentice  led  his 
master's  daughter  a  bride  to  the  altar. 

The  apprenticeship  system,  as  it  existed  in  medieval  times, 
offered  opportunity  to  the  youth  of  learning  all  branches  of 
his  trade.  The  shop  was  small.  Master  and  apprentice  often 
worked  side  by  side  at  the  same  bench.  The  master  himself 
'  worked  at  all  processes  of  his  handicraft,  and  therefore  it 
was  comparatively  easy  for  him  to  teach  all  processes  to  the 
lad  at  his  side.  It  was  comparatively  easy,  too,  for  the  lad 
to  follow  the  workings  of  his  master  and  to  imitate  them. 
The  number  of  apprentices  being  small  the  master  could  give 
each  one  a  large  part  of  his  attention.  Furthermore,  as  there 
were  but  few  apprentices  and  journeymen,  there  was  but 
little  division  of  labor,  and  therefore  but  little  of  the  modern 
tendency  to  keep  a  boy  employed  on  one  or  two  processes 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  It  was  to  the  interest  of  the 
master  that  the  apprentice  be  able  to  assist  him  at  every 
process  of  the  craft.  To  the  master,  too,  accrued  the  profits 
of  the  apprentice's  toil  during  the  latter's  term  of  service, 
and  the  more  skilful  the  boy,  the  greater  the  gains  of  his 
employer. 

Harsh  as  were  its  terms,  apprenticeship,  nevertheless,  con- 
stituted the  chief  means  of  advancement  to  the  medieval  youth. 
Only  through  its  training  was  it  possible  for  the  boy  to  grow 
up  into  the  skilled  man.  Fortunate,  therefore,  were  those 
chosen  to  serve  with  and  learn  from  the  master  craftsmen  of 


46  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

the  time.  And  it  is  important  to  note  that  the  way  was  open 
to  comparatively  few.  The  guilds  saw  to  it  that  the  different 
trades  were  not  overmanned.  Furthermore,  many  were  barred 
through  lack  of  capacity  to  develop  the  requisite  skill.  As  a 
result  the  apprenticeship  system  was  of  benefit  to  the  few 
and  many  were  left  to  get  along  as  best  they  might. 

After  the  term  of  apprenticeship  was  completed  it  was 
customary  in  some  guilds  to  require  a  man  to  work  for  several 
years  as  a  journeyman,  before  he  could  establish  a  shop  of 
his  own.  Entrance  fees  to  the  guild,,  the  cost  of  a  dinner 
or  a  "drinking,"  and  in  Continental  Europe  the  production 
of  a  chef-d'oeuvre,  were  other  obstacles  to  setting  up  as  a 
master.  Although  apprenticeship  was  not  required  universally, 
it  came  gradually  to  be  the  only  method  of  securing  either 
the  freedom  of  the  craft  or  a  franchise  in  the  municipality. 
It  could  be  avoided  only  by  those  who  could  afford  to  purchase 
their  rights  or  by  those  who  inherited  them  from  their  parents ; 
and  even  these  roads  were  barred  to  a  large  extent  by  legisla- 
tion during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 

Persistence  of  Apprenticeship 

The  remarkable  persistence  of  the  system  is  to  be  explained 
in  large  part  because  of  the  adaptability  of  apprenticeship  to 
the  demands  of  the  medieval  industries.  Careful  individual 
attention  from  the  master  and  the  long  term  of  service  gave 
opportunity  for  the  refinement  of  skill  and  artistic  ability 
in  construction  so  essential  to  the  handicrafts.  The  accom- 
plishments of  the  ironworkers,  joiners,  carvers,  and  decorators 
of  the  Renaissance  all  give  evidence  of  an  efficient  training 
under  stringent  supervision  by  the  guilds.  Both  master  and 
apprentice  were  under  close  surveillance;  the  subjects  of  in- 
struction were  often  specified  and  the  apprentice  was  given 
a  rigid  examination  at  the  end  of  his  term.  Quoting  Scott 
again ; 


EARLIER   FORMS    OF   APPRENTICESHIP  47 

Thus  the  Clothworkers  of  London  insisted  that  the  candi- 
date for  mastership  "shear  and  worke"  in  the  common  hall 
of  the  guild  before  the  master  wardens  and  certain  of  the 
assistants.  The  Shoemakers'  Guild  of  Carlisle  required  that 
the  apprentice,  after  completing  his  term  "have  foure  paire 
of  shoes  given  him  to  worke" ;  if  the  shoes  were  well  wrought 
he  was  to  be  admitted  a  journeyman,  but  if  not  he  must  be 
a  "hireman."  Rather  more  complicated  examinations  were 
laid  down  in  the  ordinances  of  the  Barber-Surgeons  and  the 
Apothecaries,  examinations  which  must  have  done  much  to- 
ward changing  the  craft  of  "barbery"  into  the  science  of 
surgery,  the  art  of  the  apothecaries  into  the  science  of 
medicine. 


Decline  of  Guilds 

The  guilds  began  gradually  to  lose  their  power  during 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  they  began  to  decline  rapidly.  Constant  strife  arose 
because  of  restrictions  which  prevented  a  man  from  changing 
his  trade  or  altering  the  nature  of  his  product.  Robinson  and 
Beard  in  their  "Outlines  of  European  History"  write  as  fol- 
lows of  these  restrictions: 

In  Paris  a  hatter,  who  had  greatly  increased  his  trade 
by  making  hats  of  wool  mixed  with  silk,  had  his  stock 
destroyed  by  the  guild  authorities  on  the  ground  that  the 
rules  permitted  hats  to  be  made  only  of  wool  and  said  nothing 
of  silk.  The  trimming-makers  had  an  edict  passed  forbid- 
ding anyone  to  make  buttons  that  were  cast  or  turned  or 
made  of  horn.  .  .  . 

The  goldsmiths  were  the  natural  enemies  of  all  who  used 
gold  in  their  respective  operations,  such  as  clock-makers  and 
watch-makers,  the  money-changers,  and  those  who  set 
precious  stones.  Those  who  dealt  in  natural  flowers  were 
not  allowed  to  encroach  upon  those  who  made  artificial 
ones.  One  who  baked  bread  must  not  make  pies  or  cakes. 
The  tailor  who  mended  clothes  must  not  make  new  gar- 
ments. 


48  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

Enterprising  workmen  and  merchants  began  openly  to 
evade  the  guild  regulations.  Thoughtful  leaders  disapproved 
the  regulations  because  their  traditional  and  unnecessary  re- 
strictions hampered  progress.  As  new  towns  grew  up  and 
the  number  of  skilled  workmen  multiplied,  it  became  increas- 
ingly difficult  for  the  guilds  to  exercise  proper  supervision 
over  apprenticeship.  England  established  a  system  of  courts 
to  redress  wrongs  and  punish  offenders,  but  there  was  no  plan 
of  inspection  to  bring  abuses  to  light  and  very  naturally  the 
court  favored  the  capitalist  master  rather  than  the  beggar 
apprentice.  The  examination  of  apprentices  at  the  end  of 
their  term  was  largely  abandoned  and  the  number  of  semi- 
skilled workmen  was  accordingly  augmented. 

Only  the  old  handicraft  trades  remained  in  the  guilds. 
Companies  engaged  in  the  newer  industries,  such  as  the  manu- 
facture of  glassware,  porcelain,  and  silk  and  cotton  goods, 
early  became  independent  and  were  granted  special  monopolies 
and  privileges  by  progressive  rulers. 

The  Industrial  Revolution 

The  end  of  the  guild  system  came  with  the  introduction 
of  power-driven  machinery  and  factories  which  definitely 
marked  the  beginning  of  our  modern  industrial  system  of 
capital  and  labor. 

Following  the  disappearance  of  the  guilds  and  the  inven- 
tion of  labor-saving  machinery  there  begins  one  of  the  blackest 
chapters  in  the  history  of  civilization.  For  the  old  family 
relationship  between  master  and  apprentice  there  were  sub- 
stituted capitalism,  highly  specialized  occupations,  and  child 
labor.  Trade  instruction  became  a  farce,  wages  were  reduced 
to  the  starvation  point,  and  tradesmen  were  driven  into  un- 
skilled labor.  "The  children  might  retain  the  name  of  ap- 
prentices, but  they  were  practically  wretched,  unintelligent 
little  factory  hands." 


EARLIER   FORMS   OF   APPRENTICESHIP  49 

Abuses  Under  the  New  System 

By  1835,  more  tnan  one-third  of  the  mill  operatives  in 
England  were  children,  half  of  them  under  14  years  of  age. 
Their  plight  is  thus  described  by  Robinson  and  Beard  in  their 
work  already  referred  to. 

Thousands  of  little  paupers  were  taken  from  the  poor- 
houses  and  nominally  apprenticed,  but  practically  sold,  to 
the  proprietors  of  the  mills.  Nor  were  pauper  children 
the  only  ones  to  suffer.  Necessity  or  greed  on  the  part  of 
parents,  and  the  demand  for  "cheap  labor"  on  the  part  of 
the  manufacturers,  brought  thousands  of  other  children  into 
industrial  life.  Parliamentary  reports  tell  of  children  under 
five  working  in  the  mines,  of  those  but  little  older  crawling 
on  hands  and  knees  through  narrow  subterranean  passages, 
dragging  heavy  carts  of  coal,  and  of  mere  lads  laboring  in 
pinmills  at  high  tension  for  twelve  hours  a  day. 

Neglected  sanitation,  bad  ventilation,  scanty  food,  and  ex- 
cessive hours  finally  gave  rise  to  serious  epidemics.  In  Eng- 
land, because  the  epidemics  endangered  the  lives  of  the  upper 
classes,  Parliament  was  at  last  stirred  to  action.  Beginning  in 
1832,  a  series  of  acts  were  passed  which  greatly  reduced  the 
hours  of  labor  for  women  and  minors  and  improved  the  condi- 
tion of  apprentices.  It  was  not  until  1906  and  1908,  however, 
that  measures  were  passed  which  successfully  mitigated  the 
evils  of  sweatshop  employment,  industrial  accidents,  unem- 
ployment, and  child  labor. 

In  Germany  and  Austria,  apprenticeship  held  its  own 
against  the  encroachments  of  new  manufacturing  methods 
better  than  in  Great  Britain,  because  of  the  continuance  of 
many  of  the  hand  trades  and  because  of  the  provision  of 
part-time  and  continuation  schools.  France,  Switzerland, 
Denmark,  and  other  countries  have  made  similar  provisions 
for  supplementary  instruction  and  have  safeguarded  appren- 
ticeship by  various  forms  of  national  legislation.  Nevertheless 


50  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

what  has  been  true  of  England  has  been  true  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent,  of  every  European  country. 

'  i* 

Apprenticeship  in  America 

Although  apprenticeship,  together  with  nearly  all  its  at- 
tendant abuses,  was  transmitted  to  America  from  Europe, 
the  guilds  never  had  a  foothold  on  the  western  continents. 
Moreover,  it  is  much  to  the  credit  of  the  North  American 
colonies  that  the  majority  early  passed  legislation  protecting 
all  apprenticed  children,  and  requiring  their  masters  to  make 
provision  for  their  instruction  in  reading  and  writing. 

A  Massachusetts  General  Court  Order  of  1642  obliged 
all  masters  and  parents  to  teach  their  apprentices  and  children 
"to  read  and  understand  the  principles  of  religion  and  the 
capital  laws  of  the  country"  as  well  as  to  train  them  in 
profitable  employments.  The  act  was  enforced  by  the  select- 
men who  were  empowered  to  take  neglected  children  from 
their  masters  or  parents  and  bind  them  out  to  law-abiding 
persons.  Reading  and  writing  were  made  a  compulsory  part 
of  the  apprentice's  training  by  a  Poor  Law  enacted  in  1703, 
and  ciphering  was  added  to  the  list  in  1771.  Similar  legisla- 
tion in  all  of  the  New  England  Colonies  and  in  New  York 
insured  every  apprentice  free  instruction  in  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic  in  either  day  or  evening  schools.  The  laws 
were  sufficiently  well  enforced  to  make  apprenticeship  take 
on  the  aspect  of  "a  new  and  peculiarly  American  institution" 
which  successfully  endured  throughout  the  domestic  period  of 
trade  and  manufacture.1 

The  "Domestic  Period" 

The  transformation  from  the  household  to  the  domestic 
period  of  industry  in  America  began  to  take  place  in  the 


1  Seybolt,     Robert     Francis,     "Apprenticeship     and     Apprenticeship     Education     in 
Colonial  New  England  and  New  York,"  pages  104-107. 


EARLIER   FORMS    OF   APPRENTICESHIP  51 

latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  continued  during 
the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  During  this  period 
larger  mills  and  machines  were  introduced  to  supplement  the 
work  of  individuals  upon  materials  destined  for  home  con- 
sumption. The  gristmills  ground  the  grain  of  the  community 
for  a  small  price,  the  fulling-mills  thickened  the  cloth,  which 
had  been  spun  and  woven  in  the  several  homes  and  was 
afterwards  to  be  shaped  into  garments  in  the  homes.  Rolling- 
and  slitting-mills  rolled  iron  into  sheets  and  cut  the  sheets 
into  rods,  which  the  farmers  shaped  into  nails  by  hand  on  the 
anvil  during  the  winter  evenings. 

It  is  recorded  that  in  Virginia  in  1649  there  were  five 
water-mills,  four  windmills,  and  a  great  number  of  horse  and 
handmills  for  grinding  grain.  Toward  the  close  of  the  cen- 
tury, such  mills  rapidly  increased  throughout  the  state  and 
fulling-mills  for  cloth  were  added.  In  Cambridge,  Massachu- 
setts, there  was  a  printing  press  in  1639,  the  first  one  in  the 
colonies.  Georgia,  the  last  colony  to  begin  printing,  set  up 
a  press  in  Savannah  in  1762.  Machines  and  appliances  for 
extracting  iron  ore  and  working  iron  were  introduced  into 
many  of  the  colonies  during  the  last  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century  and  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth century  Pennsylvania  and  Massachusetts  had  large 
numbers  of  furnaces,  forges,  foundries,  rolling-mills,  nail 
works,  and  wiremills. 

Decline  of  Apprenticeship 

During  the  domestic  period  much  of  the  work  in  the  mills 
was-  performed  by  helpers,  unskilled  laborers,  indentured 
servants,  and  slaves,  so  that  apprenticeship  began  to  decline. 
From  1619  to  1819  indentured  service  was  common  in  all 
the  thirteen  colonies.  It  differed  from  apprenticeship  in  that 
the  master  was  in  no  way  obligated  to  teach  the  apprentice 
a  trade.  Slavery  was  of  course  an  important  factor  in  caus- 


52  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

ing  a  falling  off  in  apprenticeship  among  the  southern  colonies. 
In  the  skilled  occupations  in  the  northern  states,  on  the  other 
hand,  apprenticeship  prevailed,jon  the  whole  until  the  change 
from  the  domestic  method  of  manufacture  to  the  factory 
system  was  nearly  complete. 

-U  lr"«  fe  -:  *:  .'.- 

The  Factory  System 

Factories  were  first  erected  about  the  time  of  the  war  of 
1812.  The  textile  industry  was  well  developed  by  the  middle 
of  the  century,  but  the  extension  of  the  factory  system  to 
general  manufacture  did  not  take  place  on  a  large  scale  before 
the  Civil  War. 

For  nearly  forty  years  after  the  abolition  of  slavery,  the 
outstanding  feature  of  American  industry  was  the  merging 
of  independent  concerns  to  form  business  monopolies  or  com- 
binations. In  1870,  the  Standard  Oil  Company  was  only 
one  of  250  oil  refineries  and  controlled  only  4  per  cent  of 
the  nation's  output.  Twelve  years  later  it  had  absorbed  a 
large  number  of  small  holdings  and  40  of  the  leading  concerns, 
and  95  per  cent  of  the  oil  produced  in  the  United  States  was 
sold  by  the  Standard's  gigantic  trust.  Following  the  lead  of 
the  Standard  Oil  Company,  some  three  hundred  industries, 
representing  a  capitalization  of  $7,246,000,000,  formed  non- 
competitive  combinations  or  organized  as  large-scale  corpora- 
tions during  this  period,  the  movement  reaching  its  climax  in 
the  years  from  1898  to  1902. 

Figure  20  suggests  what  took  place  in  three  typical  indus- 
tries, although  the  figures  are  somewhat  misleading  because 
the  averages  for  the  years  after  1880  have  been  greatly  reduced 
by  including  large  numbers  of  very  small  shops  which  persisted 
in  spite  of  the  dominant  tendency.  Save  for  the  building  and 
handicraft  trades,  the  day  of  the  small-scale  entrepreneur  and 
the  highly  skilled  workman  who  learned  his  trade  through  a 
long-term  apprenticeship  was  nearly  at  an  end. 


EARLIER   FORMS   OF   APPRENTICESHIP 


53 


Some  conception  of  the  effect  upon  American  life  produced 
by  the  changes  occurring  during  the  last  century  may  be 
gained  from  the  statement  that  nearly  90  per  cent  of  the 
working  population  was  engaged  in  agriculture  in  1800,  while 
only  33  per  cent  was  employed  in  similar  pursuits  in  1910. 
A  large  proportion  of  those  now  in  manufacturing  and 
mechanical  occupations,  10,658,881  in  1910,  are  at  work  in 


COTTON  MANUFACTURES 

MANUFACTURE  OF  AGRI- 
CULTURAL IMPLEMENTS 

SLAUGHTERING  AND 
MEAT  PACKING 

YEAR 

No.  of 

Average 
Number  of 

No.  of 

Average 
Number  of 

No.  of 

Average 
Number  of 

Estab- 

Wage-Earners 

Estab- 

Wage- Earners 

Estab- 

Wage- Earners 

lishments 

Establishment 

lishments 

Establishment 

lishments 

Establishment 

1840  

1,240 

58 

1850  

1,094 

84 

1,333 

5 

185 

18 

1860  

1,091 

112 

2,116 

8 

259 

20 

1870.  .... 

956 

142 

2,076 

12 

768 

II 

1880  

756 

231 

1,943 

20 

872 

31 

1890  

90S 

242 

910 

43 

1,118 

39 

1900  

973 

306 

715 

65 

921 

74 

Figure  20.     Table  Showing  Growth  of  Large-Scale  Industrial  Enterprises  in 

the  United  States 

Adapted  from  "Industrial  History  of  the  United  States,"  page  356.  by  Katharine  Coman. 

trades,  or  are  using  machines  and  methods  which  were  un- 
known fifty  years  ago. 

Effect  of  Specialization 

By  1 88 1,  specialization  and  labor-saving  machinery  had 
rendered  the  all-round  workman  superfluous  to  so  large  an 
extent  that  William  Mather,  a  representative  appointed  by 
Queen  Victoria  to  study  American  industries,  reported: 

The  old  system  of  apprenticeship  has  almost  ceased  to 
exist  in  America.  .  .  .  The  whole  tendency  is  to  engage  boys 
as  they  do  men,  only  for  what  they  are  worth.  The  evil  of 
this  will  be  severely  felt  in  the  future,  if  not  mitigated  by 
great  changes  in  education,  for  the  reason  that  many  boys 
are  obliged  to  leave  school  at  14  or  15,  and  if  they  are  not 


54  TRAINING  INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

allowed  to  enter  the  skilled  trades,  they  will  be  thrown  upon 
casual  employments  or  unskilled  pursuits  for  temporary  gain 
and  a  livelihood.  .  .  .  It  is  undoubtedly  a  shortsighted  policy 
on  the  part  of  employees  to  discourage  the  employment  of 
boys  without  aiding  those  movements  which,  in  the  form  of 
industrial  schools,  would  enable  a  boy  to  qualify  for  service 
at  17  years  old  at  a  higher  rate  of  wages  than  he  could 
probably  get  at  that  age  but  for  this  training.2 

"Floating"  or  "Casual"  Labor 

Although  it  was  not  fully  appreciated  at  the  time,  we  know 
now  that  employers  suffered  enormous  losses  because  of  the 
large  floating  labor  population  and  the  excessive  labor  turn- 
over then  common  to  all  large  concerns.  A  writer  in  the 
journal  of  the  International  Brotherhood  of  Machinery 
Holders  pointed  out  one  aspect  of  this  situation  in  i893.3 

Our  apprentice  system,  if  it  can  be  called  a  system,  is 
little  less  than  barbarous.  In  many  shops  there  is  no  attempt 
made  to  regulate  the  working  of  boys  or  indeed  to  attempt 
to  teach  them  anything  other  than  what  they  may  be  able  to 
pick  up  on  their  own  account.  From  a  false  idea  of  economy, 
many  of  our  foremen  and  bosses  fill  up  their  shops  with 
boys;  they  are  given  some  trifling  job  to  do,  and  in  a  few 
weeks  they  become  proficient  molders,  on  brake-shoes  or 
sash-weights — no  attempt  is  made  to  teach  them  any  part  of 
the  trade;  they  are  there  for  a  purpose,  that  is,  to  make 
all  they  can  for  the  man  who  employs  them,  for  the  lowest 
possible  wages.  As  soon  as  the  boy  begins  to  think  that  it 
is  time  for  him  to  get  an  increase  in  wages  he  is  informed 
that  his  time  is  up  and  it  will  do  him  good  to  travel  and  see 
how  things  are  made  in  other  shops  before  he  settles  down. 
He  is  turned  loose  on  the  country  and  travels,  not  always 
from  choice,  but  oftener  from  necessity.  He  is  known  as  an 
incompetent  as  soon  as  he  puts  his  shovel  in  the  sand  heap 
and  as  soon  as  the  rush  is  over  he  is  forced  to  travel.  This 


'-'  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1882-83,  page  CLI. 

3  Quoted    in    Fourth    Biennial    Report    of    the    Bureau    of    Labor    of   the    State    of 
Minnesota,    1893-94. 


EARLIER   FORMS    OF   APPRENTICESHIP  55 

class  of  floaters  is  ever  on  the  increase  and  they  are  a  serious 
menace  to  the  self-respecting  mechanic  who  endeavors  to 
elevate  his  calling  and  secure  for  himself  a  more  remunerative 
rate  of  wages.  And  that  is  not  all;  he  is  an  injury  to  the 
boss  almost  as  much  as  he  is  to  the  journeymen.  He  drifts 
into  a  shop  in  time  of  a  rush,  and  before  he  is  noticed  he  has 
ruined  more  work  than  he  could  make  good  in  a  month. 

Although  the  years  from  1870  to  1900  mark  the  lowest 
ebb  of  apprenticeship  in  the  United  States,  at  no  time  has  it 
ever  completely  died  out. 

Attitude  of  Organized  Labor 

During  the  nineteenth  century,  both  in  Europe  and  in  the 
United  States,  organized  labor  played  an  important  part  in 
maintaining  apprenticeship  against  the  forces  tending  to  de- 
stroy it. 

In  England  from  the  time  of  Edward  VI  (1547-1553), 
various  laws  were  passed,  directed  against  combinations  of 
wage-earners  for  the  purpose  of  securing  higher  wages  and 
better  conditions  of  work.  These  culminated  in  the  famous 
Combination  Laws  of  George  III,  enacted  in  1800,  which 
strictly  forbade  all  combinations,  unions,  or  associations  of 
workmen  formed  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  higher  wages 
or  decreasing  the  hours  of  work.  Although  these  laws  were 
repealed  in  1824,  the  right  to  combine  in  their  own  in- 
terest was  not  fully  enjoyed  by  industrial  workers  until  after 
1871.  Nevertheless,  organized  labor  early  began  to  exert  its 
influence  upon  apprenticeship  regulations,  and  during  the  last 
ten  years  it  has  been  the  controlling  factor  in  shaping  such 
policies  in  Great  Britain. 

Early  Unions 

In  the  United  States,  the  first  local  craft  unions  were  the 
Philadelphia  Carpenters  (1791),  the  Typographical  Society 


5  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

of  New  York  (1794),  the  Baltimore  Tailors  (1795),  and  the 
Baltimore  Typographical  Society  (1803).  The  first  labor 
unions  were  organized  about  ^825.  At  that  time  industry 
had  not  been  organized  beyond  the  craft  stage,  markets  were 
not  yet  national,  and  interstate  competition  was  little  felt. 
Accordingly  the  principal  aims  of  the  early  unions  were  to 
secure  better  hours,  higher  wages,  regulation  of  apprentice- 
ship, and  the  exclusion  of  ''illegal  men."  Only  local  and 
temporary  results  were  achieved  and  their  efforts  had  no  con- 
siderable effect  upon  apprenticeship  until  the  period  following 
the  Civil  War  when  strong  national  organizations  were 
formed.  The  first  national  union  was  organized  by  the  printers 
in  1850.  After  this  the  number  spread  very  rapidly  and  by 
1860,  26  trades  had  formed  national  organizations.  Fresh 
strength  was  given  to  the  movement  by  the  organization  of 
the  Knights  of  Labor  in  Philadelphia  in  1869  and  a  second 
impetus  came  with  the  formation  of  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor  in  1886. 

Opposition  to  Specialization 

In  general,  the  bargaining  power  of  the  unions  during  the 
period  from  1865  to  1885  was  especially  directed  in  opposition 
to  such  industrial  changes  as  permitted  the  substitution  of 
unskilled  for  skilled  workers,  workers  on  highly  specialized 
operations  for  all-round  craftsmen,  and  machinery  for  hand 
labor.  It  was  believed  that  these  changes  would  constantly 
create  an  increasing  supply  of  cheap  labor  to  be  added  to 
the  immigrants  from  Europe  and  the  negroes  from  the  South. 
The  unions  persistently  endeavored  to  regulate  apprenticeship, 
hoping  thereby  to  increase  the  number  of  skilled  artisans  and 
stem  the  rising  tide  of  semiskilled  labor. 

The  unionists  have  found  that  even  in  a  closed  shop 
where  all  the  workers  are  unionists  the  solidarity  of  the 
group  cannot  be  maintained  where  the  workers  are  too  highly 


EARLIER   FORMS    OF   APPRENTICESHIP  57 

specialized  and  lack  a  considerable  degree  of  craft  training. 
Under  such  circumstances  it  is  easy  for  the  employer  to  pit 
worker  against  worker,  arouse  jealousies,  and  induce  in- 
dividual competition.  Hence,  in  part,  the  union  abhorrence 
of  specialization  and  their  demand  for  the  apprenticeship 
system.4 

In  spite  of  the  attention  devoted  by  the  trade  unions  to 
apprenticeship,  comparatively  few  strikes  or  lockouts  have 
occurred  because  of  disputes  over  that  question.  Figure  21 
gives  the  data  for  the  years  when  labor  troubles  for  this 
cause  were  most  frequent.  Although  few  in  number,  appren- 
ticeship disputes  were  bitterly  contested.  Moreover,  the  con- 
trol of  apprenticeship  was  frequently  involved  as  a  subordinate 
issue  in  struggles  which  originated  over  other  matters. 


Strikes 

Lockouts 

Establishments  involved 

QS% 

7  68% 

Losses  in  wages  

2  .  2O 

4.  H 

Assistance  given  by  unions  to  workmen  .... 
Losses  to  employers 

4:63 
•2    OO 

I2.Q9 
.8l 

Number  of  workmen  involved       

•74 

.91 

Figure  21.     Percentage  Figures  of  Strikes  and  Lockouts  in  the  United  States 

Due  to  Disputes  over  Apprenticeship  in  Comparison  with  All  Other  Causes. 

(1881  to  1886  Inclusive) 

Adapted  from  the  Fourth  Biennial  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  of  the  State  of  Minnesota, 
pages  158-161.  These  figures  do  not  include  a  number  of  strikes  on  railways  and  in  certain 
other  occupations  where  the  term  apprenticeship  was  not  used,  although  this  was  the  matter 
at  issue.  The  bitter  strike  of  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincyin  1886-87  is  a  case  in  point. 


Effect  of  Union  Attitude 

In  considering  the  effect  of  the  labor  unions  upon  appren- 
ticeship it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  employees  in  many 
of  the  factory  trades,'  such  as  the  rubber  industry,  have  never 
been  organized  and  that  the  percentage  holding  union  member- 
ship is  very  low  in  several  other  large  industries.  Another 


Hoxie,    R.    F.,    "Trade    Unionism   in   the   United    States,"   page    292. 


5  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

important  aspect  of  the  matter  is  that  organized  workmen, 
never  having  had  any  really  satisfactory  training  themselves, 
do  not  know  what  to  demand  of  employers. 

In  a  few  crafts,  such  as  blacksmithing  and  horseshoeing, 
and  in  the  majority  of  manufacturing  industries,  employers 
have  accepted  the  responsibility  for  the  training  of  new  work- 
men and  retain  almost  complete  control  over  apprenticeship. 
The  Boot  and  Shoe  Workers'  locals,  for  example,  have  rarely 
done  more  than  limit  the  number  of  apprentice  cutters,  leaving 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  employer  the  method  of  training 
and  the  length  of  time  required  to  learn  cutting.  In  a  few 
trades,  such  as  printing  and  sheet  metal  construction,  the 
unions  have  successfully  dominated  the  situation;  in  still 
others,  such  as  the  building  trades,  there  is  a  tendency  to  joint 
control  through  arbitration. 

An  investigation  conducted  by  the  Massachusetts  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics  in  1906,  showed  that  relatively  few  of  the 
labor  organizations  represented  in  the  state  had  laid  definite 
restrictions  upon  apprenticeship.  Statements  made  by  134 
local  and  international  unions  indicated  that  59  had  no  limita- 
tions regarding  the  number,  103  did  not  limit  the  age,  and 
66  did  not  restrict  the  term  of  indenture  for  apprentices.5 

The  Unions  and  Child  Labor 

Child  labor  is  one  of  the  issues  closely  related  to  appren- 
ticeship which  was  early  raised  between  the  unions  and  em- 
ployers. In  1849  Pennsylvania  forbade  the  labor  of  children 
under  13  in  textile  establishments,  and  within  the  next  decade 
a  12-year  limit  was  established  in  Rhode  Island  and  a  lo-year 
limit  in  New  Jersey  and  Connecticut.  The  first  provision  for 
special  officers  to  enforce  age  restrictions  was  made  in  a  Massa- 
chusetts law  of  1867,  which  forbade  the  employment  of 


5  "The    Apprenticeship    System,"    Part    I    of    the    Annual    Report    of   the    Massa 
chusetts   Bureau   of   Statistics   of   Labor  for    1906,   page   20. 


EARLIER   FORMS   OF   APPRENTICESHIP  59 

children  unaer  10  years  of  age  in  manufacturing  plants.  The 
Workingmen's  Party  at  its  congress  in  Philadelphia  in  1876 
advocated  laws  against  the  employment  of  children  under  14 
years  of  age,  and  about  the  same  time  the  Knights  of  Labor 
took  a  stand  against  employment  under  15  years  of  age  in 
workshops,  mines  and  factories.  The  American  Federation 
of  Labor  later  indorsed  the  1 5-year  standard. 

The  United  States  Census  of  1870  showed  that  739,164 
children  between  the  ages  of  10  and  15  years  were  employed 
in  gainful  occupations.  Of  these  114,628  were  in  manu- 
facturing establishments.  By  1880  the  number  had  increased 
to  1,118,356  children  in  all  occupations.  It  was  due  in  large 
part  to  the  insistent  demands  of  organized  labor  that  this 
undesirable  tendency  was  recognized  by  most  states,  and 
restrictive  legislation  was  passed  which  caused  the  number  to 
decline  rapidly  thereafter. 

Trade  Union  Classes 

Although  the  efforts  of  the  unions  were  restricted  at  first 
to  limiting  the  number  of  apprentices  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  journeymen  and  to  demanding  an  opportunity  to 
learn  all  of  the  "mystery"  of  the  trade,  they  came  gradually 
to  advocate  better  technical  instruction  to  supplement  the  prac- 
tical experience  of  the  shop.  Failing  in  their  attempts  to  get 
employers  to  establish  schools,  several  trade  union  classes  were 
organized  during  the  period  from  1907  to  1912.  In  some 
cities  co-operative  agreements  were  entered  into  by  the  em- 
ployers, the  public  schools,  and  the  labor  organizations.  Thus 
in  Indianapolis  a  reconstructed  apprenticeship  was  established 
in  several  different  trades.  Employers  sanctioned  two-year 
day  courses  in  wood-working  and  sheet  metal,  while  three 
evening  classes  beginning  in  October  and  ending  the  following 
May  were  established  for  plumbers'  apprentices. 

In  Rochester,  New  York,  about  1912,  an  agreement  was 


60  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

entered  into  oetween  the  Rochester  Typothetae  and  the 
Rochester  Shop  School.  The  members  of  the  Typothetae 
agreed  to  reserve  places  each  year  for  a  limited  number  of 
boys  whom  the  school  certified  as  having  satisfactorily  com- 
pleted a  preliminary  three  months'  course.  During  the  first 
two  years  of  his  training,  the  student  alternates  weekly  be- 
tween the  school  and  the  factory,  wages  being  paid  for  both 
class-  and  shop-time.  The  remaining  two  years  are  spent  in 
the  factory  under  the  supervision  of  the  school.  A  similar 
agreement  with  Rochester  machinists  provides  a  preparatory 
course  of  two  years,  one-half  of  each  day  being  given  to  shop 
experience  and  the  other  half  to  the  study  of  shop  mathe- 
matics, mechanical  drawing,  applied  science,  industrial  history, 
civics,  and  English. 

Apprenticeship  and  Modern  Educational  Tendencies 

The  description  of  the  evolution  of  apprenticeship  given 
in  this  chapter  remains  to  be  supplemented  by  a  record  of 
the  changes  brought  about  during  the  last  decade.  Before 
turning  to  the  account  of  present-day  conditions,  we  may  make 
appraisal  of  the  effect  of  apprenticeship  upon  the  learning 
process  in  industry  and  upon  vocational  education  in  general. 

I.  It  has  been  urged  that  the  modern  factory  system,  by 
destroying  the  demand  for  highly  skilled  craftsmen  and  by 
greatly  reducing  the  proportion  of  workers  receiving  a  com- 
prehensive experience  through  apprenticeship,  has  decreased 
the  general  enjoyment  in  work  and  the  pride  in  creative 
effort.  Quite  the  opposite  is  probably  true.  It  is  only 
romantic  idealism  that  pictures  the  high-grade  medieval  jour- 
neymen and  masters  as  representative  of  a  large  part  of  the 
population.  Thousands  were  unable  to  develop  the  skill  neces- 
sary to  do  first-class  work  and  were  therefore  bound  to  menial 
tasks.  Factory  production  offers  this  middle  class  of  semi- 
skilled workers  both  interesting  and  profitable  employment. 


EARLIER   FORMS   OF   APPRENTICESHIP  6l 

All  told,  there  is  today  a  larger  proportion  of  fascinating 
tasks  and  operations  requiring  a  high  degree  of  skill  than  at 
any  time  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Moreover,  there  is  oppor- 
tunity to  work  in  groups  instead  of  in  isolation. 

2.  Although  the  earlier  forms  of  apprenticeship  are  ac- 
knowledged to  be  poorly  adapted  to  the  majority  of  industrial 
occupations  today,  some  of  the  best  features  of  this  method 
of  training  can  still  be  effectively  utilized.    The  factory  worker 
needs  to  be  oriented  by  some  process  which  will  give  him  the 
same  perspective  that  the  old-time  apprentice  gained  by  a  long 
term  of  service  in  intimate  contact  with  every  phase  of  the 
trade.    He  needs  in  some  way  to  gain  an  equivalent  apprecia- 
tion of  the  importance  of  his  task  and  to  realize  the  problems 
faced  by  his  employer  and  his  fellow-workmen.     Wherever 
apprenticeship  is  abandoned,  satisfactory  corrections  for  the 
resulting  deficiencies  in  training  can  and  must  be  found. 

3.  Where  apprenticeship  persists,  as  it  still  does  in  many 
trades,  some  of  the  undesirable  features  are  direct  descendents 
of  European  or  early  colonial  customs.     Those  who  propose 
changes  ought  to  appreciate  how  deeply  rooted  trade  traditions 
are  and  that  regulation  and  improvement  can  be  brought  about 
only  by  educating  the  membership  of  the  trade  to  see  the 
desirability  of  innovations. 


CHAPTER  IV 

BEGINNINGS  IN  MODERN  INDUSTRIAL 
EDUCATION 

Rise  of  Factory  System 

A  study  of  the  industrial  history  of  the  United  States 
shows  that  the  demand  for  training  employees  in  connection 
with  large-scale  factory  production  is  of  comparatively  recent 
origin.  Slater's  mill,  the  first  textile  factory  in  the  United 
States,  was  built  in  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Island,  in  1790,  but  the 
factory  system  really  began  in  the  United  States  when 
numerous  cotton  and  woolen  mills  were  erected  and  other 
manufactures  were  stimulated  as  the  result  of  the  Embargo 
Act  of  1807  and  the  War  of  1812. 

For  a  period  of  seven  years,  domestic  manufacturers  had 
a  virtual  monopoly  of  the  home  market.  In  1807  there  were 
only  15  cotton-mills  in  the  United  States  with  8,000  spindles 
and  an  annual  output  of  300,000  pounds  of  cotton  yarn;  in 
1815,  5OO>OO°  spindles  gave  employment  to  76,000  persons 
with  an  annual  pay-roll  of  $i5,ooo,ooo.1  The  first  textile  fac- 
tory in  the  world  where  all  of  the  manufacturing  processes, 
from  the  preparation  of  the  cotton  fiber  to  the  bleaching  of 
the  finished  fabric,  were  carried  on  by  continuous  steps  in  one 
establishment,  was  erected  in  Waltham,  Massachusetts,  in  1814 
by  a  company  organized  by  Francis  C.  Lowell  of  Boston.2 

The  power-loom  was  successfully  utilized  in  the  manu- 
facture of  woolen  cloth  by  Rowland  Hazard  at  South  Kings- 


1  Coman,   Katharine,   "Industrial   History   of  the   United   States,"  pages   184-203. 

2  Bullock,   Charles  J.,    "Selected   Readings  in   Economics,"   page    152. 

62 


MODERN    INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION  63 

ton,  Rhode  Island,  in  1828.  During  the  next  ten  years  other 
factories  were  established  in  rapid  succession  in  various  parts 
of  Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts.  It  was  not  until  after 
1830,  however,  that  many  large-scale  enterprises  appeared  in 
either  cotton  or  woolen  manufacture.  The  Middlesex  Mills 
were  established  at  Lowell  in  1830  with  a  capital  of  $500,000, 
which  was  soon  increased  to  $1,000,000.  In  1845  the  city 
of  Lawrence  was  founded  as  the  center  for  the  Bay  State 
Mills,  a  wool-manufacturing  corporation  capitalized  at 
$1,000,000.  The  Pacific  Mills,  established  in  1853  with 
$2,000,000  capital,  had  an  annual  output  by  1860  of  11,000- 
ooo  yards  of  dress-goods. 

Labor's  Interests  Neglected 

Although  the  oldest  and  one  of  the  most  extensive  of 
American  factory  enterprises,  the  textile-mills  have  con- 
tributed little  to  industrial  education.  Some  training  has  been 
given  for  textile  factory  management  and  in  technical  fields, 
such  as  applied  design  and  the  chemistry  of  dyestuffs  and 
fabric  treatment,  but  the  ordinary  worker  has  received  scant 
attention.  Only  a  minor  percentage  of  the  cotton,  woolen, 
and  knitting  mills  have  adopted  the  principles  of  scientific 
management;  very  few  have  employment  managers;  and  the 
conditions  under  which  women  and  children  have  been  em- 
ployed constitute  a  national  disgrace. 

Much  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  iron  and  steel  indus- 
tries. Pennsylvania  early  became  the  center  of  iron-  and  coal- 
mining and  the  iron  and  steel  industries.  By  1810  the  state 
"boasted  44  blast  furnaces,  78  forges,  18  rolling-  and  slitting- 
mills,  and  170  nail  factories  where  nails  and  brads  were  cut 
by  machinery."  Because  they  were  basic  necessities  to  the 
growth  of  all  other  manufacturing,  these  industries  increased 
rapidly  and  remain  one  of  our  chief  sources  of  wealth.  Work- 
ing conditions,  nevertheless,  have  been  quite  uniformly  bad, 


64  TRAINING  INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

and  training  is  neglected  save  for  skilled  mechanics,  technical 
experts,  and  the  leading  executives. 

Despite  the  rapid -developrn^nt  of  power-driven  machinery 
and  the  example  of  the  successful  growth  of  the  textile  indus- 
try, the  bulk  of  general  manufacturing  continued  for  many 
years  to  be  handled  by  primitive  methods.'  It  was  not  until 
1850  that  small  shops  and  household  labor  were  displaced  in 
any  large  measure  by  the  modern  production  plan. 

Pioneer  Technical  Training 

Although  systematic  instruction  for  factory  employees  or 
for  the  skilled  trades — other  than  such  instruction  as  an  ap- 
prentice might  receive — was  practically  unknown  in  the  United 
States  before  1880,  technical  training  of  university  grade  had 
been  begun  long  before.  Schools  for  scientific  research  and 
the  education  of  engineers  preceded  any  attempt  at  training 
workmen  by  more  than  three-quarters  of  a  century.  The 
class  of  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  graduating  in 
1835  received  the  first  degrees  in  civil  engineering  ever  con- 
ferred in  any  English-speaking  country.  West  Point,  founded 
in  1802,  was  the  first  institute  to  lay  stress  on  practical  mathe- 
matics. 

Previous  to  1862  there  had  been  established  in  the  United 
States  only  five  important  scientific  institutions,  namely: 
Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  at  Troy  (1824),  the  Law- 
rence Scientific  School  of  Harvard  (1847),  tne  Sheffield 
Scientific  School  of  Yale  (1847),  the  Chandler  Scientific 
School  of  Dartmouth  (1857),  and  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology  (i86i).3  Under  the  Educational  Land  Grant 
of  1862,  there  was  opened  a  new  era  for  scientific  studies. 
Technical  educational  institutes  rapidly  increased  so  that  in 
1870  there  were  21  of  good  standing.  The  majority  of  them 


•Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  Vol.  I.,   1898-99,  pages,  873-955. 


MODERN  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  6$ 

attained  their  greatest  usefulness  in  supplying  railway,  mining, 
hydraulic,  and  mechanical  engineers  during  the  period  of  in- 
dustrial expansion  following  the  Civil  Wan 

Applying  Scientific  Knowledge 

Engineering  education  began  with  pure  mathematics  and 
natural  science  and  gradually  developed  the  theory  of  applied 
mathematics  and  applied  science.  For  many  years  students 
were  taught  through  lectures,  problems,  and  text-book  study, 
not  by  experiment  and  demonstration  in  a  laboratory.  About 
1876,  the  agitation  for  a  practical  engineer  who  should  unite 
in  one  person  the  skill  of  the  artisan  with  the  scientific  knowl- 
edge of  the  older  type  of  engineer  led  to  the  establishment 
of  shop  practice  or  technical  instruction  to  supplement 
theoretical  training.  At  the  same  time,  studies  of  a  similar 
character  found  a  place  in  the  preparatory  training  of  persons 
of  high  school  age  because  of  the  realization  that  the  United 
States  was  far  behind  European  countries  in  trade  education. 
Vocational  preparation  for  the  mechanic,  the  skilled  machine 
operative,  even  the  factory  executive,  had  been  everywhere 
neglected.  Mechanical  drawing,  applied  science,  and  shop 
mathematics  were  nowhere  taught  in  the  public  schools,  and 
only  a  few  institutes  had  attempted  instruction  in  the  mechanic 
arts. 

Popularizing  Vocational  Education 

The  demand  for  vocational  education  in  secondary  schools 
was  foreshadowed  in  the  aim  of  the  English  Classical  High 
School,  as  set  forth  in  the  regulations  of  the  Boston  School 
Committee:  "To  fit  ...  the  young  men  of  the  city  not  in- 
tended for  a  collegiate  course  .  .  .  for  active  life  or  qualify 
them  for  eminence  in  private  or  public  station."  Over  sixty 
years  of  devotion  to  the  ideal  of  college  preparation  were  to 
elapse  before  any  adequate  beginnings  were  made  toward 


66  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

realizing  this  practical  aim.  The  first  industrial  trend  in 
secondary  education  appeared  with  the  introduction  of  draw- 
ing and  manual  training.  At  first  the  values  claimed  for 
both  of  these  subjects  were  largely  vocational  and  technical. 
Horace  Mann  strongly  advocated  the  teaching  of  drawing  in 
his  Seventh  Annual  Report,  issued  in  1844. 

For  the  master  architect,  for  the  engraver,  the  engineer, 
the  pattern  designer,  the  draftsman,  molder,  machine-builder, 
or  head  mechanic  of  any  kind,  all  acknowledge  that  this  art 
is  indispensable.  But  there  is  no  department  of  business  or 
condition  in  life  where  this  accomplishment  might  not  be  of 
utility.  .  .  .  Whatever  advances  the  mechanic  and  manufac- 
turing arts  is  especially  important  here. 

At  the  time  of  the  London  Exhibit  in  1851,  in  which  draw- 
ing and  designing  received  much  attention,  both  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  were  made  more  fully  aware  of  their 
lack  of  technical  education  and  of  the  advantages  possessed 
by  Continental  Europe  because  of  the  excellent  training  offered 
there  in  such  subjects. 

Vocational  Training  in  the  Public  Schools 

The  California  Statutes  of  1851  included  drawing  in  the 
list  of  subjects  required  to  be  taught  throughout  the  state. 
Cincinnati  added  drawing  to  its  curriculum  in  1862.  In  1870 
the  Massachusetts  legislature  passed  a  law  which  placed  draw- 
ing among  the  subjects  required  to  be  taught  in  the  public 
schools.  This  legislation  came  in  response  to  an  urgent  appeal 
from  the  manufacturers  who  keenly  felt  the  need  of  skilled 
workmen  familiar  with  the  elements  of  drafting  and  designing. 

Manual  training  appeared  in  European  schools  as  early 
as  1858.  In  1871,  instruction  in  both  wood  and  metal  was 
given  for  the  first  time  in  the  United  States  in  the  shops 
of  the  Illinois  Industrial  University,  later  the  University  of 


MODERN   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION  67 

Illinois.  The  next  year  Dr.  C.  M.  Woodward  organized 
manual  training  classes  at  Washington  University  in  St.  Louis. 
At  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  1876,  the  exhibit  of  the 
Imperial  Technical  School  of  St.  Petersburg  attracted  much 
attention.  The  basis  of  the  Russian  method,  which  had  been 
evolved  in  an  engineering  school,  was  the  analytic  study  of 
a  trade  or  art  in  order  to  discover  typical  elemental  processes 
which  could  be  presented  in  an  organized  course  as  short 
exercises.  With  this  method  to  follow,  and  spurred  on  by 
the  poor  showing  which  American  products  had  made  at  the 
Exposition  in  comparison  with  foreign  goods,  manual  training 
and  drawing  developed  rapidly.  In  the  great  majority  of 
elementary  and  secondary  schools,  however,  these  subjects  still 
possess  little  if  any  direct  vocational  value.  Wide-spread 
acceptance  of  them  could  not  be  secured  on  the  industrial 
basis.  Traditional  practices  and  the  lack  of  trained  teachers 
acted  as  a  barrier  until  cultural  and  disciplinary  values  of  a 
general  nature  were  used  as  arguments  for  their  introduction. 
Only  within  the  last  few  years  has  there  been  a  distinct 
tendency  in  the  direction  of  relating  this  work  more  closely 
to  occupational  needs. 

The  Manual  Training  High  School 

Through  the  efforts  of  Dr.  Woodward,  the  first  manual 
'training  high  school  was  opened  at  St.  Louis  in  connection 
with  Washington  University  in  1880.  This  school  offered  the 
usual  high  school  subjects,  with  the  exception  of  the  classics, 
in  addition  to  various  lines  of  shop  work  and  mechanical  draft- 
ing. High  schools  of  a  somewhat  similar  type  were  established 
in  Baltimore  and  Chicago  in  1884;  Philadelphia,  1885 ;  Omaha 
and  Cleveland,  1886. 

At  the  time  of  the  establishment  of  the  St.  Louis  Manual 
Training  School,  Governor  T.  T.  Crittenden,  of  Missouri, 
spoke  of  the  need  for  industrial  education. 


68  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

The  following  quotation  from  his  address  is  from  the 
report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1882-83  (page 
CLVII). 

The  old  system  of  apprenticeship  is  about  at  an  end,  and 
it  is  necessary,  if  we  propose  to  protect  the  interests  of  our 
industries  and  consult  the  welfare  of  our  youth,  to  devise 
some  means  for  their  proper  training.  In  our  ordinary  and 
more  advanced  schools  the  only  vocations  aimed  at  and  in 
which  positive  interest  is  aroused  are  commerce,  buying  and 
selling,  banking,  reckoning  accounts,  keeping  books,  and  the 
so-called  "learned  professions."  The  ordinary  schoolboy 
gets  the  idea  that  it  requires  no  education  to  be  a  mechanic ; 
hence  he  aspires  to  what  is  called  a  higher  profession,  a 
higher  avocation,  and  foolishly  learns,  from  vicious  sources, 
to  despise  both  craft  and  craftsmen.  If  this  pernicious 
tendency  can  be  corrected  and  the  dignity  of  skilled  labor 
and  skilled  workmen  be  maintained  by  the  introduction  of 
manual  training  into  grammar  schools  of  high  grade,  great 
good  will  be  accomplished.  I  have  no  hesitancy  in  directing 
attention  to  this  manual  school  as  one  of  our  educational 
ornaments,  worthy  of  the  patronage  of  our  sons  and  the 
respect  of  our  citizens. 

Two  Theories  of  Shopwork 

Shopwork  as  an  educational  method  developed  under  two 
radically  different  theories.  The  report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Education*  contains  this  explanation: 

Under  one  theory,  which  is  very  ably  demonstrated  by 
Dr.  C.  M.  Woodward  in  his  manual  training  school  at  St. 
Louis,  shopwork  is  simply  one  means,  with  many  others,  of 
training  the  whole  man.  It  is  primarily  disciplinary.  As 
stated  in  his  own  words:  "An  exercise,  whether  with  tools 
or  with  books,  is  valuable  only  in  proportion  to  the  demand 
it  makes  upon  the  mind  for  intelligent,  thoughtful  work.  In 
the  school  shop  the  stage  of  mechanical  habit  is  never 
reached;  the  only  habit  is  that  of  thinking."  Such  a  train- 


«  Vol.  I,   1898-99.      (Pages  873-955). 


MODERN   INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  69 

ing,  in  its  relation  to  acquisition,  is  defined  in  a  further 
quotation  from  Dr.  Woodward:  "We  have  distinctly  stated 
that  our  pupils  do  not  become  skilled  mechanics,  nor  do  we 
teach  the  full  details  of  a  single  trade.  The  tools  whose 
theory,  care,  and  use  we  teach  are  representative,  and  the 
processes,  employed  just  far  enough  to  make  every  step  clear 
and  experimentally  understood,  equally  underlie  a  score  of 
trades." 

The  other  theory  is  that  education  in  the  shop  should  be 
for  definite  acquisition.  Where  the  acquisition  requires  a 
specific  skill,  and  the  training  is  more  especially  in 
mechanical  habit,  we  have  what  is  generally  called  industrial 
education.  Where  the  object  is  to  familiarize  the  student 
with  how  a  thing  is  done  rather  than  specific  manual  skill 
in  a  particular  thing,  and  where  the  approach  is  from  the 
scientific  side,  so  that  all  construction  is  connected  with 
general  principles  of  design,  we  have  what  is  generally 
called  technological  education.  The  term  technical  education 
is  variously  used,  but  if  it  could  be  given  any  exact  meaning 
it  would  imply  a  shop  education  somewhere  between  the 
industrial  and  the  technological. 

Trade  schools,  both  public  and  private,  grew  up  in  response 
to  the  demand  for  training  in  "specific  skill" ;  developing  side 
by  side  with  the  trade  schools  were  the  public  manual  training 
and  technical  high  schools  (discussed  in  Chapter  VII),  co- 
operative part-time  schools,  and  continuation  schools. 

Instruction  for  a  Specific  End 

Pupils  of  high  school  age  desiring  to  enter  the  mechanical 
and  electrical  trades  or  the  art  industries,  or  to  prepare  for 
home-making  employments  have  received  attention  in  such 
schools  as  the  New  York  Trade  School  founded  in  1881,  the 
Drexel  Institute  (Philadelphia,  1891),  Pratt  Institute  (Brook- 
lyn, 1887),  Went  worth  Institute  (Boston,  1911),  the  Lick 
(California  School  of  Mechanic  Arts),  Wilmerding,  and  Lux 
Schools  (San  Francisco,  1895,  1900,  I912),  and  the  Lewis 


70  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

Institute  of  Chicago  (1877).  All  of  these  schools  aim  to 
offer  highly  specialized  instruction  for  persons  planning  to 
enter  a  particular  occupation;  yery  little  of  their  work  is  of 
such  a  general  character  as  to  apply  to  any  considerable  group 
of  industries. 

Technical  schools  of  secondary  grade  offering  work  applied 
directly  to  the  industries  developed  first  in  connection  with 
the  manufacture  of  textiles.  The  Textile  School  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Museum  at  Philadelphia  opened  in  1884.  Massa- 
chusetts established  state-aided  textile  schools  at  Lowell  in 
1895,  m  New  Bedford  in  1895,  and  at  Fall  River  in  1899. 
In  many  respects  the  textile  schools  of  this  type  correspond 
quite  closely  to  the  middle  technical  schools  of  Germany. 

The  Polytechnic  High  School 

The  field  between  the  manual  training  high  school  and 
the  technical  institute  has  been  occupied  quite- recently  by  the 
technical  or  polytechnic  high  school.  Because  of  the  uncer- 
tainty of  aim  on  the  part  of  the  founders  and  because  of  the 
great  number  of  overlapping  subjects  which  have  been  in- 
troduced, it  is  exceedingly  difficult  in  many  cases  to  draw  any 
sharp  line  of  distinction  between  the  technical  school  and  the 
general  high  school  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  manual  training 
or  manual  arts  school  on  the  other.  Several  of  our  technical 
high  schools  were  first  organized  as  manual  training  institu- 
tions and  only  gradually  adopted  their  present  technical  pro- 
gram. Thus  the  Stuyvesant  High  School  in  New  York  was 
distinctly  a  manual  training  school  until  about  1909  or  1910. 
Previous  to  1910,  the  Lane  Technical  High  School  (Chicago) 
offered  very  much  the  usual  type  of  four-year  manual  training 
course  to  the  boys  of  the  district.  There  was  a  distinct  effort, 
however,  from  the  beginning  to  make  the  work  practical  and 
to  organize  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  provide  training  of  voca- 
tional value  to  boys  who  left  at  the  end  of  the  second  year. 


MODERN   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION  71 

Part-Time  Education 

Dean  Herman  Schneider  of  the  department  of  engineering 
of  the  University  of  Cincinnati  organized  the  first  class  under 
his  well-known  plan  of  co-operative  training  in  1906.  The 
students  received  their  academic  and  technical  training  one 
week  in  the  university  and  worked  the  next  week  in  the  shops 
of  co-operating  employers.  By  grouping  the  young  men  in 
pairs,  so  that  one  was  in  the  school  while  the  other  was  in 
the  shop,  both  school  and  shop  work  went  on  without  inter- 
ruption. Fitchburg,  Massachusetts,  applied  the  method  to 
high  school  students  in  1908,  and  Beverly,  Massachusetts, 
established  a  state-aided  co-operative  class  in  connection  with 
the  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company,  in  1909. 

Continuation  Schools 

Superintendent  Frank  B.  Dyer  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  estab- 
lished one  of  the  first  continuation  schools  in  the  United 
States  in  1909.  It  was  a  day  school  for  machinist  apprentices, 
offering  a  four-year  course  in  drawing,  mathematics,  shop 
science  and  theory,  English,  commercial  geography,  and  civics. 
Students  attended  one-half  day,  four  hours,  each  week  and 
were  paid  the  usual  wage  for  the  time  by  their  employers. 

The  Boston  School  Committee  opened  continuation  classes 
in  1910  for  young  people  employed  in  the  shoe  and  leather 
industry,  the  dry-goods  industry,  and  department  stores. 
Three  years  later  the  Massachusetts  General  Court  enacted 
permissive  legislation  which  enabled  school  committees  to 
establish  compulsory  continuation  schools  for  workers  between 
the  ages  of  14  and  16,  but  no  city  in  the  state  outside  of 
Boston  has  yet  taken  advantage  of  the  opportunity  (1919). 
In  Boston  each  employed  minor  under  16  years  of  age  is 
required  to  attend  day  continuation  classes  four  hours  each 
week. 


72  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

In  May,  1910,  Ohio  passed  a  law  similar  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts act,  providing  for  classes  for  boys,  except  eighth  grade 
graduates,  between  8  A.M.  and  5  P.M.,  not  to  exceed  8  hours 
each  week.  Classes  are  held  only  during  the  regular  school 
term.  Attendance  is  compulsory  upon  the  establishment  of 
a  continuation  school  by  the  local  authority.  Cincinnati  opened 
continuation  schools  in  May,  1911,  which  required  four  hours' 
attendance  each  week.  Cleveland  began  similar  work  in  the 
same  year,  requiring  six  hours'  attendance  per  week.  In  New 
York  City,  the  first  day  continuation  classes  were  established 
under  the  Wilmot  Law,  passed  by  the  state  in  1913,  in  the 
department  store  of  Abraham  and  Straus  in  Brooklyn.  By 
1916,  38  classes  were  in  operation  in  department  stores,  hotels, 
candy  factories,  manufacturing  plants,  and  repair-shops. 

The  Wisconsin  Plan 

A  Wisconsin  law  passed  in  June,  1911,  provided  for  public 
industrial,  commercial,  continuation,  and  evening  schools.  As 
modified  by  legislation  enacted  in  1915,  these  four  types  of 
schools  are  defined  as  follows: 

1.  Industrial   schools   include  part-time   day  classes    for 
apprentices  over  16  years  of  age  and  all-day  instruction  for 
persons  14  to  21  years  of  age.     School  attendance  is  required 
of  apprentices  up  to  18  years  of  age  according  to  the  terms  of 
the  state  controlled  indenture. 

2.  Continuation  schools  are  for  all  persons  14  to  16  years 
of  age  employed  on  labor  permits,  in  domestic  service,  or  at 
home.    Attendance  8  hours  per  week  for  10  months  each  year 
is  compulsory.    Those  who  are  16  but  under  17  years  of  age 
are  required  to  attend  part-time  school  not  less  than  5  hours 
per  week  for  6  months  in  the  year. 

3.  Commercial  schools  offer  instruction  for  temporarily 
unemployed  persons  over  16  years  of  age,  or  for  acceptable 
pupils  who  wish  to  prepare  for  salesmanship  or  accounting. 


MODERN   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION  73 

4.  Evening  classes  are  attended  voluntarily  by  persons  over 
1 6  years  of  age.5 

Cox  Child  Labor  Act — Pennsylvania 

The  Cox  Child  Labor  Act,  passed  by  the  Pennsylvania 
Legislature  in  1915,  requires  employed  minors  between  the 
ages  of  14  and  16  to  attend  continuation  schools,  where  estab- 
lished, 8  hours  per  week.  Classes  must  be  organized  in  every 
community  where  20  or  more  children  of  the  specified  age 
are  employed.  The  Pennsylvania  legislation  differs  from  the 
Wisconsin  law  in  limiting  children  under  16  to  51  hours  of 
labor  per  week,  including  the  time  spent  in  school.  Wisconsin 
allows  but  48  hours  of  work  but  requires  only  8  months  of 
school  attendance,  thus  making  the  net  working  hours 
practically  the  same  in  both  cases. 

Difficulties 

The  chief  fault  of  continuation  education  is  that  no  plan 
has  been  devised  for  combining  civic  and  general  academic 
studies  with  technical  or  shopwork  designed  to  help  the  pupil 
to  make  progress  in  his  employment.  Except  in  the  metro- 
politan areas,  it  is  often  impossible  to  organize  classes  of 
economic  size  including  only  pupils  having  common  vocational 
interests.  The  diversity  of  employment  makes  it  difficult  to 
secure  practical  teachers,  and  only  a  few  manufacturers  are 
yet  ready  to  co-operate  by  providing  facilities  for  classes 
within  the  plants  so  that  commercial  shopwork  can  be  at- 
tempted, or  other  instruction  directly  related  to  the  plant's 
activities  can  be  planned.  For  these  reasons  the  teaching  is 
strongly  academic,  and  children  attend  because  they  are  com- 
pelled to,  not  because  they  hope  to  profit  by  the  opportunity.6 


6  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,   1915,  Vol.  I,  page  234. 

•  For  a  digest  of  the  hours  of  employment,  continuation  school  regulations,  and 
other  legislation  affecting  minors,  see  "The  States  and  Child  Labor,"  Children's 
Year  Leaflet,  Children's  Bureau,  United  States  Dept.  of  Labor,  NO.  13,  April,  1919. 


74  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

Corporation  Schools 

The  first  school  maintained  by  an  American  business  house 
was  organized  by  the  R.  Hoe  Ppnting  Company  of  New  York 
in  1875.  Very  little  was  accomplished  toward  developing 
corporation  schools  until  about  1905,  when  a  considerable 
number  of  concerns  began  to  develop  this  neglected  phase  of 
management.  Eight  years  later  the  National  Association  of 
Corporation  Schools  held  its  charter  meeting  at  New  York 
University  as  the  result  of  a  general  invitation  issued  by  the 
New  York  Edison  Company  and  the  National  Cash  Register 
Company  of  Dayton,  Ohio.  Forty-eight  concerns  were  repre- 
sented, but  not  all  of  these  had  organized  schools.  In  fact, 
outside  of  the  railroad  apprentice  schools,  there  were  probably 
less  than  twenty-five  well-established  corporation  schools  in 
the  United  States  at  that  time. 

Employment  or  personnel  management  became  an  im- 
portant factor  in  administration  after  about  1912  when  the 
first  association  of  employment  managers  was  formed  in 
Boston.  With  the  rise  of  a  group  of  executives  whose  primary 
interests  are  the  reduction  of  labor  turnover  and  the  increasing 
of  output  by  solving  problems  of  human  engineering,  renewed 
attention  was  given  to  the  training  of  employees  and  new 
methods  for  training  foremen  and  minor  executives  were  pro- 
posed. The  foreman's  position  in  particular  was  subjected  to 
close  scrutiny  and  limitations  were  placed  upon  his  authority 
over  the  selection,  training,  and  discharge  of  employees. 
Several  concerns  introduced  training  courses  which  for  the 
first  time  emphasized  the  management  of  employees  as  one 
of  the  foreman's  most  important  tasks. 

Industrial  training  in  the  shop  and  factory  received  its 
next  impetus  at  the  beginning  of  the  World  War.  Faced  with 
an  inadequate  supply  of  skilled  labor  and  the  supreme  need 
for  an  unprecedented  volume  of  output,  manufacturers  and 
shipbuilders,  assisted  by  government  departments,  turned  to 


MODERN  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  75 

vestibule  training  and  other  forms  of  intensive  instruction. 
New  methods  were  devised  for  preparing  instructors  as  well 
as  operatives  and  hundreds  of  classes  were  organized  to  train 
an  industrial  army  for  service  overseas  as  well  as  to  keep  the 
wheels  turning  in  our  factories  and  shipyards  at  home. 

Labor  Organizations  and  Industrial  Training 

Organized  labor  entered  the  field  of  industrial  training  in 
1907.  A  commission  appointed  then  by  the  Hot  Springs  Con- 
vention of  the  International  Typographical  Union  reported: 

....  that  in  the  average  shop  the  opportunities  for 
thoroughly  learning  the  trade  of  printing  did  not  exist. 
Specialization  kept  some  printers  indefinitely  on  one  kind  of 
work  and  provided  but  a  narrow  field  of  instruction  for  the 
apprentice.  This  circumstance  had  resulted  in  a  perceptible 
decrease  in  skill  among  printers,  who  were  practically  given 
no  opportunity  to  acquire  the  mastery  of  their  trade.  A 
second  result  of  this  lack  of  a  general  training  was  the 
necessity  of  calling  on  outsiders  for  some  of  the  work  which 
it  was  asserted  rightfully  belonged  to  the  printers.  These 
outsiders  are  the  professional  designers,  who  are  trained  in 
art  schools,  where  they  have  learned  the  principles  of  letter- 
ing, design,  and  color  harmony,  and  have  been  given  oppor- 
tunity to  exercise  originality. 

With  all  these  considerations  in  view  the  typographical 
union  realized  that  the  printers  needed  technical  education, 
and  as  a  central  school  was  not  possible,  the  idea  of  the 
correspondence  school  was  adopted  as  the  on!y  practical 
means  of  effecting  the  desired  change.  The  typographical 
union  did  not  propose  "to  make  printers  but  to  give  appren- 
tices, journeymen,  and  even  master  printers  an  education 
supplementary  to  that  of  the  printing  office/'  7 

Apprentice  schools  and  courses  giving  supplemental  tech- 
nical education  were  established  during  the  period  from  1907 
to  1910  by  the  Photo-Engravers  Union,  the  Carpenters  and 

7  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Industrial  Education  of  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor.  62nd  Congress,  2nd  Session,  Senate  Document  No.  936,  page  29. 


76  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

Bricklayers  of  Chicago,  and  the  Carriage,  Wagon,  and  Auto- 
mobile Workers'  Union  of  New  York  City.  A  little  later 
other  classes  were  started  by*  the  public  schools  in  several 
cities  as  the  result  of  arbitration  agreements. 

The  common  attitude  of  organized  labor  toward  indus- 
trial training  in  public  and  private  schools  was  expressed  in 
1909  by  John  Golden,  then  President  of  the  United  Textile 
Workers  of  America. 

I  shall  at  all  times,  so  far  as  I  am  individually  concerned, 
oppose  the  trade  school  which  attempts  to  turn  out  a  full- 
fledged  bricklayer,  carpenter,  or  machinist,  in  a  few  months' 
time  and  for  a  certain  price.  It  will  not  alone  lower  the 
standard  of  any  industry,  but  is  detrimental  to  the  boy's  own 
interest.  He  who  is  given  such  an  education,  making  of  him 
a  "half-baked"  journeyman,  as  it  were,  by  a  process  which 
converts  the  school  into  what  is  commonly  known  as  a  "scab 
hatchery"  is  not  a  needed  acquisition  to  the  ranks  of  labor. 
On  the  other  hand,  I  shall  always  be  glad  tp  co-operate  in 
any  movement  which  tends  to  place  our  industries  on  a 
higher  plane,  to  open  up  better  and  more  opportunities  for 
your  boy  and  my  boy  to  acquire  an  industrial  and  technical 
education  which  will  enable  him  to  fight  life's  battles  better 
equipped  than  we  were.  In  such  a  movement  I  feel  safe  in 
saying  organized  labor  is  with  you  heart  and  soul.8 

Organized  labor,  both  in  Great  Britain  and  in  the  United 
States,  has  recently  issued  declarations  favoring  vocational 
guidance,  continuation  education,  improved  opportunities  for 
trade  and  technical  training,  national  support  for  vocational 
education,  and  the  extension  of  compulsory  age  limits  for 
school  attendance.  Union  labor  is  represented  on  the  Federal 
Board  for  Vocational  Education  and  has  had  a  large  share  in 
shaping  the  policies  of  the  Dilution  and  Training  Service  and 
the  Working  Conditions  Service  under  the  Department  of 
Labor. 


8  Golden,  John,  "The  Position  of  Labor  Unions  Regarding  Industrial  Education." 
The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  January,  1909, 
page  187. 


CHAPTER  V 

NATIONAL  AND   STATE  AID   FOR  VOCATIONAL 

EDUCATION 

National  Land  Grants  for  Education 

The  principle  of  national  aid  for  education  was  first 
developed  in  connection  with  land  grants.  The  majority  of 
these  date  back  to  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  which  reserved  one 
lot  in  sixteen  in  every  township  for  the  maintenance  of  public 
schools.  With  the  admission  of  Ohio  in  1802,  further  pre- 
cedents were  established  by  giving  the  new  state  certain  salt 
springs  and  5  per  cent  of  the  net  proceeds  of  the  sales  of 
all  public  lands  within  the  state,  in  addition  to  the  sixteenth 
section  in  each  township.  A  number  of  grants  were  made 
during  the  next  century.  Part  of  the  surplus  revenue  in  the 
United  States  Treasury  in  1837  was  utilized  for  educational 
purposes.  Of  this  amount,  a  fund  of  $7,500,000  still  remains, 
the  interest  being  devoted  entirely  to  schools. 

Land  Grant  Act  of  1862 

The  first  significant  national  assistance  to  be  given  to 
industrial  education  was  received  through  the  Morrill  or  Land 
Grant  Act  signed  by  President  Lincoln  in  July,  1862.  This 
measure  donated  to  each  state  land-scrip  amounting  to  30,000 
acres  for  each  senator  and  representative  then  in  Congress. 
The  income  from  the  sale  of  the  land  was  to  be  used  in 
each  state  "for  the  endowment,  support,  and  maintenance  of 
at  least  one  college,  whose  leading  object  shall  be,  without 
excluding  other  scientific  and  classical  studies  and  including 
military  tactics,  to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are 

77 


7§  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts  ...  in  order  to 
promote  the  liberal  and  practical  education  of  the  industrial 
classes  in  the  several  -pursuits  #nd  professions  of  life."  The 
majority  of  the  states  used  the  funds  to  support  their  existing 
institutions  and  observed  the  provisions  intended  to  establish 
practical  training  in  a  purely  perfunctory  fashion.  Only 
one  state,  Massachusetts,  established  a  college  devoted  entirely 
to  agriculture.  Engineering  was  stimulated  in  many  colleges, 
particularly  through  the  West  and  Middle  West.  For  the 
first  two  decades  agriculture  as  well  as  industry  derived  but 
little  practical  benefit  from  the  act,  but  owing  to  stimulation 
from  other  federal  and  state  funds,  agriculture  became  well 
recognized  and  was  taught  in  thoroughly  practical  ways  after 
about  1890. 

Federal  Appropriations  for  Education 

The  Hatch  Act  of  1887  appropriated  $15,000  in  cash  to 
each  state  for  agricultural  experiment  stations,  and  the  second 
Morrill  Act  of  1890,  provided  an  annual  cash  appropriation 
of  $25,000  to  each  state  for  teaching  purposes.  The  Nelson 
Amendment  of  1907  duplicates  the  amount  appropriated  by 
the  second  Morrill  Act.  Since  1908  many  localities  have  had 
a  considerable  income  from  the  forest  reserves,  25  per  cent 
of  the  income  of  each  national  forest  reserve  being  appro- 
priated for  the  benefit  of  schools  and  roads  within  the  district 
in  which  the  reserve  is  situated.  The  total  income  from 
federal  grants  thus  far  mentioned  is  estimated  at  $830,520,000 
by  I920.1  Approximately  $599,000,000  of  this  has  been  used 
for  common  schools,  $200,920,000  for  higher  education,  and 
$30,600,000  for  normal  schools  and  special  institutions. 

The  Smith-Lever  Act 

The  Smith-Lever  Act,  passed  in  1914,  gives  federal  aid 


1  Monroe,    Encyclopedia   of   Education,    Vol.   IV,    page    382. 


AID  FOR  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  79 

to  state  agricultural  colleges  for  co-operative  agricultural 
extension  work  carried  on  in  connection  with  the  Department 
of  Agriculture.  This  work  is  designed  especially  for  persons 
not  attending  or  not  resident  at  agricultural  colleges  and  is 
given  by  means  of  farmers'  institutes,  movable  schools,  lecture 
courses,  correspondence  courses,  and  other  similar  methods. 
The  sum  appropriated  each  year  began  with  $10,000  for  each 
state  and  is  increased  annually  until  a  total  yearly  appropria- 
tion of  $4,100,000  is  reached.  The  final  basis  for  appro- 
priation will  be  the  proportion  that  the  rural  population  in 
each  state  bears  to  the  rural  population  of  the  whole  country. 

The  Smith-Hughes  Act 

The  early  federal  acts  imposed  but  few  restrictions  upon 
the  states  in  the  use  of  national  funds  for  educational  pur- 
poses. The  Smith-Lever  Act  differed  from  the  earlier  enact- 
ments in  the  nature  of  its  specific  and  exacting  requirements 
upon  the  states.  'Still  more  exacting  are  the  provisions  of 
the  Smith-Hughes  Act  passed  in  1917.  This  act  calls  for 
the  appointment  by  the  President  of  a  representative  Federal 
Board  for  Vocational  Education.  The  membership  includes 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  Secretary  of  Commerce,  the 
Secretary  of  Labor,  and  the  Commissioner  of  Education, 
together  with  three  citizens  who  are  selected  as  representatives 
of  the  interests  of  labor,  manufacturing  and  commerce,  and 
agriculture.  The  representatives  appointed  for  the  first  year 
were  Arthur  E.  Holder,  representing  labor,  Charles  E.  Great- 
house,  representing  agriculture,  and  James  P.  Munroe,  repre- 
senting manufacturing  and  commercial  interests.  The  board 
appointed  as  its  executive  head  Dr.  Charles  A.  Prosser, 
formerly  director  of  Dunwoody  Institute,  and  secured  the 
services  of  a  large  staff  of  technical  experts  and  clerical 
assistants. 

The  Smith-Hughes  law  provides  a  fund  for  the  main- 


8o  TRAINING  INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

tenance  of  the  executive  staff  and  appropriations  to  the  states 
totaling  $2,307,460.44  for  the  year  1918-19.  The  amount 
available  for  state  appropriations  increases  annually,  so  that 
the  fund  available  for  all  purposes  in  1925-26  and  yearly  there- 
after will  be  $44,934,176.  This  sum  is  to  be  matched  dollar  for 
dollar  by  the  states  to  which  it  is  appropriated,  thus  doubling 
the  total  amount  to  be  expended. 

Three  Uses  of  Federal  Funds 

The  states  may  use  the  federal  funds  for  three  different 
purposes : 

1.  The  payment  of  salaries  of  teachers,  supervisors,  and 

directors  of  agricultural  subjects. 

2.  The  payment  of  salaries  of  teachers  of  trade,  home 

economics,  and  industrial  subjects. 

3.  The  training  of  teachers  of  agricultural,  trade,  home 

economics,  and  industrial  subjects. 

Federal  Policy 

The  funds  available  for  trade  and  industrial  purposes  are 
not  definitely  separated  from  those  to  be  used  for  teachers 
of  home  economics  in  the  announcements  so  far  made,  al- 
though the  act  provides  that  no  state  may  use  more  than 
20  per  cent  of  the  total  for  home  economics.  For  the  fiscal 
year  ended  June  30,  1918,  the  sum  of  $500,000  was  appro- 
priated to  the  states  for  the  two  purposes.  This  amount  will 
be  increased  annually  by  $250,000  for  six  years  and  by 
$500,000  for  the  seventh  and  eighth  years,  until  a  maximum 
sum  of  $3,000,000  is  reached  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1926.  A  like  amount  will  then  be  appropriated  each  year 
thereafter.  Industry  will  also  profit  by  the  appropriations 
made  for  training  teachers,  and  since  agriculture  and  home 
economics  have  already  been  well  developed  in  many  sections, 


AID   FOR  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  l 

it  is  only  reasonable  to  expect  that  as  soon  as  the  states  are 
ready  to  utilize  the  money  effectively,  a  large  proportion  of  it 
can  be  devoted  to  the  training  of  teachers  of  industrial  subjects. 

Restrictions  Imposed  on  State 

Before  funds  can  be  received  by  a  state,  its  legislature 
must  accept  the  federal  act,  and  a  plan  for  the  organization 
and  maintenance  of  schools  and  classes  must  be  adopted  by 
the  state  board  of  education  and  be  approved  by  the  federal 
board.  All  of  the  states  have  accepted  the  provisions  of  the 
act  and  have  established  executive  boards  for  conducting  their 
work  in  vocational  education.  The  state  plan  is  approved  for 
one  year  only  and  constitutes  an  agreement  between  the  state 
board  and  the  federal  board  to  establish  and  maintain  classes 
under  the  conditions  and  standards  agreed  upon.  The  legal 
provisions  relative  to  different  types  of  industrial  schools  or 
classes  provided  for  in  the  act  and  established  by  the  inter- 
pretive decisions  of  the  federal  board  are  in  brief  as  follows: 

1.  The  controlling  purpose  of  such  education  shall  be  to 
fit  for  useful  employment. 

2.  Such  education  shall  be  of  less  than  college  grade. 

3.  Such  instruction  shall  be  designed  to  meet  the  needs 
of  persons  over   fourteen  years  of  age  who  are  preparing 
for  a  trade  or  industrial  pursuit  or  who  have  entered  upon 
the  work  of  the  trade  or  industrial  pursuit. 

4.  The  state  or  local  community,  or  both,  shall  provide 
the  necessary  plant  or  equipment  determined  by  the  state 
board,  with  the  approval  of  the  Federal  Board  for  Voca- 
tional Education,  as  the  minimum  requirement  in  each  state 
for  education  in  any  given  trade  or  industrial  pursuit. 

5.  The  state  board  must  prepare  plans  showing  the  course 
of    study,    methods    of    instruction,    and    qualifications    of 
teachers,  which  must  be  approved  by  the  federal  board. 

6.  In  part-time  schools  or  classes  any  subject  may  be 
given  which  is  intended  "to  enlarge  the  civic  or  vocational 
intelligence"  of  the  students  who  attend. 


82  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

Possibilities  Under  Federal  Act 

Six  types  of  industrial  schools  or  classes  may  be  organized 
under  the  federal  act:  unit  trade  schools,  general  industrial 
schools  in  cities  under  25,000,  part-time  trade  exten- 
sion classes,  part-time  trade  preparatory  classes,  part- 
time  general  continuation  schools,  and  evening  indus- 
trial classes.  The  main  interest  of  the  Federal  Board  for 
Vocational  Education  up  to  the  present  time  has  been  evi- 
denced in  establishing  what  are  known  as  short-unit  courses, 
that  is,  brief  intensive  courses  designed  to  prepare  workers  for 
specific  operations  or  occupations.  During  the  war  period, 
assistance  was  given  to  the  shipyards,  munition  plants,  and 
other  industries  engaged  in  war  work  in  the  preparation  of 
plans  for  giving  instruction  in  many  such  courses.  Evening 
classes  and  intensive  day  instruction  for  army  mechanics  and 
technicians  were  also  established  in  many  instances  with  the 
advice  and  co-operation  of  the  agents  of  the  federal  board. 
Both  for  these  purposes,  and  to  assist  in  the  task  of  establish- 
ing vocational  education  throughout  the  country  on  a  peace- 
time basis,  a  number  of  bulletins  have  been  published  giving 
trade  analysis  and  outlining  desirable  methods  of  organizing 
and  conducting  schools  and  classes. 

Financial  Aid  to  Corporations 

Except  in  states  where  local  legislation  makes  it  impossible 
to  give  state  grants  to  private  institutions,  it  is  possible  to  use 
Smith-Hughes  money  for  trade  extension  part-time  schools, 
trade  preparatory  part-time  schools,  or  general  continuation 
part-time  schools  conducted  in  connection  with  private  cor- 
porations. The  only  limitations  are  that  the  schools  or  classes 
be  under  the  supervision  of  the  public  school  authorities,  that 
the  time  devoted  to  instruction  be  not  less  than  144  hours 
per  year,  and  that  the  school  equipment,  methods  of  instruc- 


AID   FOR  VOCATIONAL   EDUCATION  83 

tion,  and  qualifications  of  the  teachers  conform  with  the  plans 
drawn  by  the  state  and  approved  by  the  federal  board. 

Each  corporation  must  face  for  itself  the  matter  of  adjust- 
ing its  educational  requirements  to  suit  the  plans  proposed  by 
the  state  authorities  and  the  federal  board.  The  corporation 
has  the  advantage  of  a  material  reduction  in  the  cost  of 
maintaining  instruction,  and  by  undertaking  co-operation  in 
this  way  is  enabled  to  have  a  more  direct  effect  upon  the 
trend  of  local  educational  effort  and  to  encourage  a  demand 
for  state  laws  providing  better  industrial  education.  The  chief 
disadvantage  of  the  arrangement  lies  in  the  occasional  in- 
ability of  school  authorities  to  grasp  the  actual  needs  and 
technical  requirements  of  the  educational  situation  in  the 
shops.  The  persons  selected  as  supervisors  of  industrial  educa- 
tion have  not  always  been  prepared  to  assist  instructors  nor 
to  give  such  advice  to  their  executive  boards  as  would  lead 
to  the  planning  of  practical  courses.  It  has  also  been  a  com- 
mon experience  to  find  teachers  appointed  by  public  school 
authorities  who  were  unfitted  by  temperament  or  experience 
for  training  employees. 

The  Physically  Handicapped 

The  Vocational  Rehabilitation  Act,  or  Smith-Sears  law, 
approved  June  27,  1918,  places  upon  the  Federal  Board  for 
Vocational  Education  the  responsibility  for  the  vocational 
guidance,  occupational  re-education,  and  placement  of  men 
disabled  in  the  nation's  service  during  the  war.  A  notable 
contribution  should  be  made  to  industrial  education  by  the 
work  done  under  this  act  in  retraining  and  adjusting  to  suit- 
able employment  the  men  who  were  physically  handicapped 
through  war  injuries.  The  federal  board  and  co-operating 
agencies  have  made  surveys  of  many  industries  in  order  to 
discover  vocational  opportunities  appropriate  to  various  types 
of  disabilities  and  to  assist  in  formulating  training  programs, 


84  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

The  results  attained  show  the  tremendous  possibilities  of  con- 
structive legislation  and  educational  effort  in  behalf  of  indus- 
trial cripples.  The  public  responsibility  in  the  matter  is  at- 
tested by  the  fact  that  in  1916  there  were  approximately 
500,000  industrial  accidents  in  the  United  States  which  caused 
the  worker  to  lose  four  weeks  or  more  from  work.  Penn- 
sylvania reports  an  annual  accident  toll,  including  minor  in- 
juries, of  250,000.  During  the  first  four  years  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Massachusetts  Workingmen's  Compensa- 
tion Law,  approved  in  1912,  nearly  417,000  injuries  were 
reported  and  $11,000,000  was  paid  out  in  compensation  and 
medical  benefits. 

Massachusetts  has  already  accepted  the  responsibility  by 
establishing  a  bureau  under  the  State  Industrial  Accident 
Board  and  appropriating  a  fund  of  $10,000  for  educational 
activities  and  vocational  guidance  for  physically  handicapped 
persons.  National  legislation  has  been  drafted  which  pro- 
poses to  place  this  work  throughout  the  United  States  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  present  Federal  Board  for  Vocational 
Education. 

Work  of  Federal  Bureau  of  Education 

Previous  to  the  establishment  of  the  Federal  Board  for 
Vocational  Education,  the  Bureau  of  Education  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior  encouraged  industrial  education  in  various 
ways.  It  aided  states  and  communities  to  introduce  programs 
for  vocational  education  by  outlining  plans  for  the  training 
of  teachers  and  holding  conferences  on  the  methods  and  prac- 
tice of  manual  training  and  trade  education.  The  staff  of  the 
bureau  carried  on  several  educational  surveys  which  studied 
local  industrial  conditions  as  the  basis  for  a  comprehensive 
plan  of  vocational  training.  Surveys  directed  by  the  bureau 
have  been  published  for  the  state  of  North  Dakota,,  for  San 
Francisco,  for  Elyria,  Ohio,  and  for  Wilmington,  Delaware. 


AID  FOR  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  85 

Mimeographed  circulars  and  printed  bulletins  have  been  dis- 
tributed which  deal  with  current  topics  in  vocational  education 
and  describe  plans  which  have  been  found  successful  in  dif- 
ferent localities. 

Backwardness  of  States 

At  the  time  of  the  passage  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act, 
only  8  of  the  48  states  had  developed  for  themselves  systems 
of  industrial  education.  These  states  were  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Indiana, 
Wisconsin,  and  California.  Their  laws  give  state  financial 
assistance  to  vocational  schools,  and  provide  for  the  super- 
vision of  employed  minors.  Industrial  education  under  state 
control  has  been  for  the  most  part  concerned  with  continuation 
schools,  trade  schools,  and  high  schools  of  polytechnic,  manual 
training,  and  technical  types.  The  limitations  of  the  concept 
of  industrial  education  held  by  the  public  as  well  as  by  the 
majority  of  educators  is  shown  by  the  small  number  of  trade 
schools  and  extension  classes  established,  and  by  the  fact  that 
the  training  which  they  afford  as  well  as  the  instruction  given 
by  technical  institutions  has  been  adapted  to  only  a  few  classes 
of  workmen.  The  skilled  trades,  such  as  carpentry,  sheet 
metal  work,  pattern-making,  the  foundry  trades,  and  electrical 
work,  have  been  given  considerable  attention,  but  only  in 
rare  instances  has  there  been  a  successful  effort  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  larger  manufacturing  concerns  or  the  diversified 
industrial  interests  of  an  entire  state  or  city. 

Previous  to  1918,  only  two  states,  Massachusetts  and 
Indiana,  had  recognized  the  necessity  for  training  teachers  of 
trade  and  industrial  subjects  by  organizing  the  work  on  a 
practical  basis  under  state  supervision.  Following  the  crea- 
tion of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  other 
states  were  induced  to  undertake  this  work,  but  it  is  still  far 
from  being  on  a  satisfactory  basis.  Teachers  of  vocational 


86  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

subjects  are  rarely  paid  as  much  as  skilled  mechanics  and  the 
demand  for  teachers  is  not  sufficiently  well  defined  to  justify 
practical  men  in  undertaking  teacher  training  courses. 

Need  of  Co-operation 

A  classification  of  the  agencies  for  industrial  education 
may  be  found  in  Appendix  K.  It  is  apparent  that  industrial 
training  is  being  administered  by  a  variety  of  conflicting  and 
overlapping  agencies.  Technical  classes  are  now  being  con- 
ducted by: 

1.  Public  schools 

2.  Private,  philanthropic,  and  endowed  institutions 

3.  Organized  labor 

4.  Private  industrial  enterprises 

There  is  need  for  some  stimulating  unifying  agency  which 
can  bring  about  co-operation  and  more  purposeful  effort.  A 
more  detailed  examination  in  later  chapters  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  schools  and  classes  and  the  methods  of  training  will 
show  still  greater  divergence  of  opinion  as  to  aims  and  tech- 
nique, dangerous  gaps  in  the  educative  process,  and  the  prev- 
alence of  dispersive  and  at  times  misdirected  efforts. 


CHAPTER  VI 

TECHNICAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  AND  CLASSES 

Development  of  High  Schools 

During  the  last  decade  a  phenomenal  development  has 
occurred  in  our  American  high  schools.  From  8,031  schools 
with  722,692  pupils  in  1906,  the  numbers  grew  to  12,003 
schools  with  1,456,061  pupils  in  1916. 

Rapid  as  the  growth  of  secondary  schools  has  been  in 
the  United  States,  it  has  been  more  than  equaled  by  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  courses  offered  and  the  students 
enrolled  in  various  vocational  or  practical  subjects.  In  many 
quarters  a  well-defined  effort  has  been  manifest  to  make  the 
public  high  school  in  fact  what  it  already  was  in  name — the 
people's  college.  Nevertheless,  these  efforts  have  been  directed 
in  the  main  toward  introducing  courses  in  commercial  sub- 
jects, agriculture,  domestic  arts,  and  applied  design.  The  only 
work  which  can  in  any  measure  be  said  to  apply  directly  to 
the  training  of  those  who  enter  the  industries  has  been  that 
which  has  characterized  a  relatively  small  group  of  schools 
known  as  manual  training  or  technical  high  schools. 

Complexity  of  Secondary  Schools 

In  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  there  are  about 
sixty  such  high  schools.  About  half  of  these  are  definitely 
described  by  name  or  by  implication  in  their  reports  and 
catalogues  as  polytechnic  or  technical  schools.  No  definite 
statement  of  the  exact  number  in  each  group  is  possible,  owing 
to  the  confusion  of  opinion  as  to  just  what  constitutes  a 
secondary  school  of  each  type.  Several  of  the  so-called 

87 


88  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

technical  high  schools  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  the 
composite  or  general  high  school  which  offers  courses  in 
applied  science  and  mathematics^ and  gives  some  shop  instruc- 
tion. A  few  of  the  manual  training  schools  are  dominated  by 
the  requirements  for  college  entrance  whereas  others  have 
introduced  practical  courses  similar  to  those  offered  by  the 
technical  institutions.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  discussion 
which  follows  to  describe  the  growth  of  these  schools,  to  give 
an  account  of  their  courses  of  study  and  methods,  and  to 
interpret  their  aims  and  tendencies  in  the  light  of  their  present 
opportunities. 

Meaning  of  Term  "Technical  Education" 

As  applied  to  education  in  many  quarters,  particularly  in 
England  and  Canada,  the  word  "technical"  has  been  used  to 
describe  almost  any  kind  of  study  which  is  neither  elementary 
nor  purely  literary  or  classical.  It  may  include  cookery,  needle- 
work, foreign  languages,  bookkeeping,  photography,  mathe- 
matics, science,  art,  and  a  variety  of  shop  subjects,  though 
on  the  whole  the  idea  of  training  for  a  craft  predominates. 
In  England  most  of  the  technical  schools  have  for  their  prin- 
cipal object  the  teaching  of  actual  industrial  principles  and 
methods.  In  Germany  and  Switzerland  the  "Technicum"  is 
a  specialized  trade  school  which  gives  a  large  amount  of  atten- 
tion to  applied  science,  mathematics,  and  drawing,  while  the 
technical  high  school  is  practically  equivalent  to  our  engineer- 
ing colleges. 

As  used  in  this  discussion,  technical  education  implies  a 
form  of  instruction  which  emphasizes  the  applications  of 
science,  mathematics,  drafting,  design,  and  economics  to  in- 
dustry and  at  the  same  time  offers  practical  experience  through 
shops,  laboratories,  and  part-time  employment.  It  usually 
includes  preparation  for  citizenship  and  instruction  in  English, 
modern  languages,  and  history.  The  main  divisions  of  tech- 


TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS   AND   CLASSES  89 

nical  education  are  those  related  to  agriculture,  commerce, 
industry,  and  domestic  employments;  the  term  implies  an 
emphasis  upon  the  scientific  principles  underlying  each  occu- 
pation rather  than  upon  the  acquisition  of  skill  or  practical 
knowledge. 

Vocational  Schools  Classified 

A  committee  of  the  National  Education  Association,  ap- 
pointed in  1913,  after  some  three  years  devoted  to  a  considera- 
tion of  the  subject,  offered  the  following  nomenclature  for 
use  in  designating  the  type  of  vocational  secondary  schools.1 

ANALYSIS  OF  TYPES  OF  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

A.  Agricultural  schools 

1.  Vocational  agricultural  schools 

(a)  Full-time  day  school 

(b)  Part-time  school 

2.  Practical  arts  agricultural  school 

3.  Farm  extension  schools 

B.  Commercial  schools 

1.  Vocational  commercial  schools 

(a)  Full-time  day  school 

(b)  Part-time  school 

2.  Commercial  arts  schools 

3.  Evening  commercial  schools 

(a)  Vocational  commercial  evening  school 

(b)  Commercial  arts  evening  school 

C.  Industrial  schools 

1.  Vocational  industrial  day  school 

2.  Vocational  part-time  industrial  schools 

3.  Evening  industrial  schools 

(a)  Vocational  extension  industrial  school 

(b)  Vocational  preparatory  industrial  school 

1  Vocational   Secondary   Education,   Bulletin,    1916,   No.   31,   Bureau   of   Education. 


90  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

4.  Industrial  arts  schools 

5.  Continuation  industrial  schools 

(a)  Extension  industrial  continuation  school 

(b)  Preparatory  industrial  continuation  school 

D.  Home-making  schools 

1.  Vocational  home-making  schools 

(a)  Full-time  day  school 

(b)  Part-time  home-making  school 

2.  Evening  home-making  schools 

(a)  Vocational  extension  home-making  school 

(b)  Vocational  preparatory  home-making  school 

3.  Household  arts  school 

E.  Technical  high  schools 

Aims  of  Three  Types  of  School 

A  committee  on  the  place  of  industries  in  public  education 
reporting  to  the  National  Council  of  Education  in  1909  en- 
deavored to  differentiate  between  manual  training  and  tech- 
nical high  schools  and  to  define  the  scope  and  aims  of  certain 
other  vocational  schools.  A  portion  of  the  report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  1910,  Volume  i,  reads  as 
follows: 

The  manual  training  high  school,  or  the  manual  training 
school,  is  a  school  of  secondary  grade  in  which  more  or  less 
handwork  is  included  in  the  curriculum  but  in  which  the 
greater  part  of  the  academic  instruction  is  similar  to  that 
found  in  other  high  school  and  college  preparatory  schools, 
neither  the  manual  nor  the  academic  instruction  being 
especially  planned  to  be  of  direct  vocational  service. 

The  secondary  technical  school,  or  the  technical  high 
school,  is  a  school  of  secondary  grade  having  the  distinct 
purpose  of  preparing  its  pupils  for  industrial  leadership — that 
is,  for  positions  in  industrial  life  requiring  skill  and  tech- 
nical knowledge  and  of  greater  importance  and  responsibility 
than  those  of  the  unskilled  mechanics.  In  such  a  school  the 
instruction  deals  not  only  with  the  important  manual  opera- 
tions, but  also  with  those  principles  of  science  and  mathe- 


TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS   AND   CLASSES  91 

matics  and  their  direct  applications  to  industrial  work  that 
will  help  to  prepare  the  student  for  successfully  mastering  the 
more  fundamental  processes  and  problems  of  those  groups 
of  industries  which  the  school  is  designed  to  reach. 

The  trade  school  and  the  preparatory  trade  school  are 
schools  which  have  for  their  definite  purpose  the  preparing 
of  boys  or  girls  for  entrance  to  the  skilled  mechanical  trades 
and  which  deal  with  their  pupils  during  a  briefer  course 
and  allow  for  earlier  preparation  for  practical  work  than 
the  technical  high  school.  Such  schools  place  their  greatest 
emphasis  upon  practical  handwork  instruction  under  condi- 
tions resembling  as  closely  as  possible  those  prevailing  in 
commercial  practice.  Such  schools  relate  the  academic  in- 
struction at  every  point  closely  to  the  practical  work  and 
include  little  that  is  not  of  direct  bearing  on  tradework. 

Aims  of  Technical  High  School 

This  commitee  states  the  aims  of  the  technical  high  schools 
as  follows: 

These  schools  are  the  schools  which  were  organized 
largely  as  a  result  of  the  movement  for  manual  training  in 
the  schools.  They  offer  general  courses  in  machine-working, 
wood-working,  and  other  forms  of  manual  work.  The 
academic  work  is  also  somewhat  closely  related  to  the  work 
carried  on  in  the  shops.  In  most  cases  and  more  particularly 
in  the  first  two  years  of  these  schools,  the  academic  work  is 
general  rather  than  specific  There  would  probably  be  very 
little  direct  effort  to  teach  specific  occupations.  These 
schools  sometimes  may  be  said  to  prepare  pupils  for  the 
higher  technical  schools  and  for  courses  in  engineering  in 
these  higher  technical  schools. 


Diversity  of  Aims 

I.  Cleveland,  Ohio.  An  example  of  the  conflicting  pur- 
poses and  uncertain  aims  of  those  who  have  established  and 
maintained  technical  high  schools  is  offered  by  the  catalogue 


92  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

of  the  East  Technical  High  School  of  Cleveland  which  con- 
tains the  following  historical  statement: 

•  .          *» 

The  Cleveland  East  Technical  High  School  was  built  as 
a  result  of  a  survey  by  a  commission  appointed  by  the 
Cleveland  Board  of  Education,  February  29,  1905. 

The  findings  of  the  Educational  Commission  were  em- 
bodied in  a  series  of  reports  submitted  to  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion during  the  years  1905  and  1906.  On  September  26, 
1905,  the  following  resolution  was  adopted: 

"That  the  Educational  Committee  of  this  Board  be 
hereby  instructed  to  investigate  the  advisability  of  estab- 
lishing a  Manual  Training  School  in  this  city  and  that  it 
be  empowered  to  extend  its  investigation  to  other  cities  as  it 
may  deem  wise  and  that  the  expense  of  such  investigation 
be  and  is  hereby  authorized  by  this  Board." 

On  Monday,  March  5,  1906,  the  Board  of  Education 
unanimously  adopted  a  resolution  authorizing  the  issue  of 
bonds  for  $350,000  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  a  Manual 
Training  High  School.  A  marked  change  as  to  what  should 
be  the  policy  of  the  school  subsequently  led  to  a  change  from 
the  name  as  above  proposed  to  the  present  one,  The  East 
Technical  High  School  of  Cleveland. 

The  following  comments  made  by  principals  of  high 
schools  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  present  tendencies  of 
development  for  manual  training  and  technical  high  schools. 

2.  Kansas  City,  Missouri.  Porter  Graves,  principal 
of  the  Manual  Training  High  School,  Kansas  City,  Missouri, 
made  the  following  statement  in  1918  about  the  work  of  his 
own  school: 

The  difference  between  this  Manual  Training  High . 
School  and  the  cosmopolitan  high  schools  in  Kansas  City  is 
this:  The  Manual  Training  High  School  requires  in  addi- 
tion to  the  standard  requirements  for  all  high  schools,  two 
years  of  manual  training  and  two  years  of  drawing.  The 
boys,  of  course,  take  shopwork  or  printing  and  mechanical 


TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS   AND   CLASSES  93 

drawing,  and  the  girls  take  two  years  of  cooking,  two  years 
of  sewing,  or  a  year  of  each  and  two  years  of  free-hand 
drawing.  These  manual  training  and  drawing  requirements 
were  laid  down  by  the  original  faculty  in  this  school  in 
1897  and  have  never  been  changed.  I  find  that  the  manual 
training  and  drawing  requirements  in  the  business  course 
handicap  us  in  developing  that  course,  but  I  have  not  yet 
seen  a  way  to  change  them. 

After  it  is  all  analyzed,  this  school  is  as  much  of  a  college 
preparatory  school  as  any  of  the  other  high  schools  in  this 
section  of  the  country  and  stands  on  the  same  plane  in  rela- 
tion to  the  colleges. 

We  have  made  some  little  attempt  to  vocationalize  certain 
courses  but  the  school  as  a  school  is  essentially  a  high  school. 

Our  manual  training  equipment  for  boys  is  probably  as 
good  if  not  better  than  that  in  the  nearby  universities.  The 
equipment  for  girls  is  not  as  good  as  that  in  the  newer 
high  schools  in  Kansas  City. 

Our  school  is  located  on  the  edge  of  the  business  district 
and  many  of  our  boys  and  girls  are  attracted  by  the  offices 
or  driven  to  them  for  economic  reasons  and  are  working 
part-time.  Out  of  a  thousand  people  that  are  still  in  school, 
a  census  taken  just  after  the  holidays  shows  that  287  of  our 
boys  and  girls  are  doing  part-time  work  and  making  a  total 
of  a  little  over  twelve  hundred  dollars  a  week. 

3.  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  G.  H.  Eckels,  Principal 
of  the  Providence  Technical  High  School,  made  the  following 
statement  in  1918  about  the  work  of  the  school  along  voca- 
tional lines: 

With  reference  to  aims,  whatever  may  have  been  the 
purposes  in  the  minds  of  its  founders,  and  in  spite  of  the 
aims  held  to  by  some  in  authority,  in  practice  the  school  is 
simply  giving  boys  a  good  general  education  with  consider- 
able hand  training  that  is  prevocational  rather  than  really 
vocational.  An  exception  is  our  co-operative  industrial 
course.  Girls  have  considerable  work  in  domestic  science 
and  arts,  but  none  of  it  strictly  vocational. 


94  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

4.  Lane  Technical  School ,  Chicago,  Illinois.  The  an- 
nouncement of  the  Lane  Technical  School,  Chicago,  for  1916, 
contains  the  following  statement* 

The  Lane  Technical  School  in  answer  to  the  insistent 
demand  that  the  public  schools  give  more  adequate  prepara- 
tion for  making  a  living  as  well  as  a  life,  has  broadened  the 
character  and  scope  of  its  work  to  include  the  following 
departments  which  may  in  many  respects  be  considered 
separate  schools: 

Four-year  technical  Plumber  apprentice 

Two-year  technical  Summer  school 

Prevocational  Evening  school 
Junior  college 

Its  main  department,  of  course,  is  the  regular  four-year 
high  school  with  its  technical  courses  preparing  for  direct 
entrance  to  industry  and  for  entrance  to  technical  colleges. 
But  in  consideration  of  the  large  number  who 'drop  out  of 
school  prematurely,  two-year  machine,  electrical,  mechanical 
drawing,  carpentering,  pattern-making,  and  printing  voca- 
tional courses  have  been  introduced.  These  save  for  the 
schools  and  for  skilled  labor  or  the  professions  hundreds 
annually  who  otherwise  would  drop  out  upon  graduation 
from  the  eighth  grade.  Elementary  school  graduates  are 
admitted  without  examination  and  by  special  permission  of 
the  superintendent  of  schools,  applicants  from  parochial 
and  other  private  schools.  Students  may  enter  at 
the  beginning  of  either  semester  in  September  and  February, 
and  at  other  times  if  they  submit  evidence  of  satisfactory 
preparation. 

• 

Vocational  Classes — Growth 

Large  increases  have  been  made  during  the  last  five  or 
six  years  in  the  number  of  public  and  private  schools  engaged 
in  work  somewhat  similar  to  that  usually  carried  on  by  tech- 
nical high  schools.  In  Figure  22  a  comparison  is  made  be- 


TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS   AND   CLASSES 


95 


tween  the  growth  of  the  public  high  schools  and  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  secondary  students  enrolled  in  technical  and 
manual  training  courses,  exclusive  of  those  offered  by  special 


Growth  of  Public  High  Schools 


,    DATE 

SCHOOLS 

• 

STUDENTS 

PER  CENT  c 

F  INCREASE 

Schools 

Students 

1910-11  
1911—12 

10,234 
ii  224 

984,677 
i  105  360 

9  7 

1912—13  

11,277 

1,134,771 

5 

2   6 

1913—14 

ii  515 

i  218  804 

2   I 

1914-15  

11,674 

1,328,984 

I  4, 

9  i 

1915—16 

12  OO3 

i  456  061 

2  8 

Total  increase  in  five  years: 

Students 48 .  o% 

Schools 17-3% 


B 

Students  in  Technical  or  Manual  Training  Courses 


DATE 

SCHOOLS 

BOYS 

Girls 

Total 

PER  CENT  OF 
INCREASE 

No. 

Per  Cent 

Students 

Schools 

1910—11   .  .    . 

687 
i,  060 
i,i73 
1,312 
2,809 
2,442 

52,030 
66,488 
68,356 
73,640 
132,335 
120,795 

78.5 
80.6 
88.0 
91.0 
95.0 
96.0 

14,480 
15,721 
9,379 
7,200 
7,396 

5,012 

66,510 
82,209 
77,735 
80,840 
139,731 
125,807 

23-4 
73-0 

54-3 
10.6 
ii.  8 
114.0 

1911-12  

1912-13 

1913-14  
1914-15  
1915-16  

Figure  22. 


Total  increase  in  four  years  (1911  to  1915): 

Students 112% 

Schools 328% 

Statistics  Comparing  the  Growth  of  Public  High  Schools  with  the 
Increase  in  Technical  and  Manual  Training  Courses 

Based  on  the  Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education. 


96  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

industrial  and  manual  training  schools.  Although  the  returns 
received  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  for  certain  years  are 
obviously  incomplete,  it  is  plain'that  the  growth  of  technical 
and  manual  training  instruction  for  pupils  of  high  school  age 
has  far  outrun  the  increase  in  the  high  school  population 
as  a  whole. 

One  of  the  interesting  tendencies  brought  to  light  is  the 
marked  decrease  in  the  proportion  of  girls  entering  such 
courses.  A  partial  explanation  for  this  falling  off  in  the 
number  of  girls  enrolled  is  given  in  Figure  23,  which  shows 
the  rapid  growth  in  the  number  enrolled  in  commercial  and 


-  -  

j 
1910-1911 

1915-1916 

Commercial 
Courses 

Domestic 
Economy 

Commercial 
Courses 

Domestic 
Economy 

Schools        

i,752 
59,322 

59i 
32,569 

2,844 
138,043 

3,i6i 
137,002 

Girls  enrolled  

Figure  23.     Table  Showing  Number  of  Girls  Enrolled  in  Public  High  Schools 


domestic  arts  courses  as  given  in  the  Report  of  the  Commission 
of  Education  for  1911  and  1916.  In  many  communities 
agricultural  courses  were  being  rapidly  developed  during  this 
period,  thus  tending  to  diminish  the  number  of  boys  studying 
manual  and  technical  subjects. 

Industrial  training  courses  offered  in  public  high  schools 
are  considered  in  Figure  24.  No  statistics  are  available  upon 
which  a  satisfactory  comparison  between  the  growth  of  this 
work  and  that  considered  in  Figure  23  (covering  enrolment 
of  girls  only)  can  be  based,  because  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education  has  not  reported  both  sets  of  figures  for  the 
same  period  of  years. 


TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS   AND   CLASSES 


97 


Date 

Schools 

Boys 

Girls 

Total 
Students 

1008—00  .  . 

26$ 

16,44.4. 

0,211 

2^,6^ 

IOI2—  13 

i  167 

A'i   Sol 

6  632 

CQ  4.C2 

Per  cent  of  increase 

34.0% 

1  66% 

06% 

Figure  24.     Statistics  of  Manual  and  Technical  Training  Courses  in  Public 
High  Schools  (Exclusive  of  Public  Manual  Training  and  Technical  Schools) 

With  the  exception  of  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Education  for  1913,  no  separate  data  are  given  for  tech- 
nical or  manual  training  high  schools.  The  table  (Figure  26) 
is  compiled  from  the  lists  in  the  commissioner's  reports  of 


YEAR 

No.  OF 
SCHOOLS 

PUPILS  ENROLLED  FOR 
MANUAL  ARTS  INSTRUCTION 

TOTAL  PUPILS 

Male 

Female 

Total 

Male 

Female 

Total 

1908—09  

36 

45 

25% 

20,385 
23,801 

16.3% 

7.597 
10,561 

39.1% 

27,982 
34.362 

22.9% 

26,969 

13.406 

40,375 

1912-13  
Per    cent    of    in- 
crease   

Figure   25.     Table   Showing    Growth   of   Manual   Training   and  Technical 

Secondary  Schools 

Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1909,  page  1175;    1913,  page  532. 
NOTE:  The  Report  of  the  Commissioner  for  1913  lists  51  schools  under  this  head,  5  of  which 
are  evening  high  schools.     The '  Ohio  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'   Orphans'   Home  School  was 
omitted  since  it  appears  to  be  a  special  type  institution. 

manual  and  industrial  training  schools,  both  public  and  private, 
and  is  not  an  exhaustive  statement  of  the  extent  of  such 
schools.  Quite  the  opposite  tendency  with-  respect  to  the 
enrolment  of  girls  is  shown  here  from  that  which  appears 
in  the  enrolment  of  technical  and  manual  training  courses 
in  the  regular  public  high  schools.  This  is  no  doubt  due  to 
the  fact  that  three  of  the  schools  listed  are  girls'  technical 
high  schools  while  several  of  the  others  have  well-equipped 
departments  giving  domestic  science  courses. 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


SCHOOLS  REPORTING  IN  1908-09 

s» 

LOCATION  NAME  OF  INSTITUTION 

Baltimore  Baltimore  Polytechnic  Institute  (boys) 

Boston  Girls'  High  School  of  Practical  Arts  (girls) 

Boston  Mechanic  Arts  High  School  (boys) 

Buffalo  Technical  High  School  (boys) 

Chicago  Albert  G.  Lane  Technical  High  School  (boys) 

Chicago  Richard  T.  Crane  Technical  High  School  (boys) 

Cleveland  Cleveland  Technical  High  School  (co-educ.)   (East 

Technical  Hi^h  School) 

Harrisburg  Harrisburg  Technical  High  School  (boys) 

Los  Angeles         Los  Angeles  Polytechnic  High  School  (co-educ.) 
Montevallo  Alabama  Girls'  Industrial  School  (girls)   (Alabama 

Girls'  Tech.  Inst.) 

Newark  Newark  Technical  School  (boys) 

New  York  Stuyvesant  High  School  (boys) 

Providence  Technical  high  School  (co-educ.) 

San  Francisco      Polytechnic  High  School  (co-educ.) 
San  Luis  Obispo  California  Polytechnic  School  (state  school  for  boys, 

largely  agricultural) 

Scranton  Technical  High  School  (co-educ.) 

Springfield  Technical  High  School  (co-educ.) 

ADDITIONAL  SCHOOLS  LISTED  IN  THE  REPORT  FOR  1912-13 

Atlanta  Technological  High  School  (boys) 

Cambridge  •        Rindge  Technical  School  (boys) 
Chicago  Lucy  L.  Flower  Technical  High  School  (girls) 

Denver  Longfellow  Technical  High  School  (co-educ.) 

Newtonville  Newton  Technical  High  School  (co-educ.) 

Venice  Polytechnic  High  School  (co-educ.) 

SUMMARY 

Boys'  schools    II 

Girls'  schools   3 

Co-educational  schools  9 

Total 23 

Mai\ual  training  and  mechanic  arts  high  schools  listed  in  1912-13 
(non-technical  schools)    19 


Figure  26.     List  of  Public  Technical  High  Schools  Appearing  in  the  Reports 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Education 


TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS   AND   CLASSES  99 

Vocational  Schools — Growth 

The  schools  represented  in  Figure  25  are  listed  in 
Figure  26.  Of  the  16  schools  reported  in  1909,  I  was  for 
girls  only,  6  were  co-educational,  and  9  were  for  boys  only. 
One  girls'  school,  3  co-educational  schools,  and  2  boys'  schools 
were  established  during  the  next  four  years. 


NAME  OF  COURSE 

No.  OF 
SCHOOLS 
OFFERING 
COURSE 

MAXIMUM  NUMBER  OF  YEARS 
COURSE  is  OFFERED 

YEARS  IN  WHICH 
COURSE  is  OFFERED 

Less 
than 

*yr. 

i 

yr. 

I 
yr. 

2 

yrs. 

3 

yrs. 

4 
yrs. 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

Algebra  (College  Prep.)  .  .  . 
American  History  
Ancient    History     (Ancient 
world,  Greece,  Rome)    .  . 

7 
IS 

7 

•• 

3 

12 

I 

2 

3 
6 

2 

•• 

•• 

2 
3 

i 
i 

3 

2 
I 

4 

3 

2 
2 

7 
3 

IS 

\ 

9 

'4 
I 

4 

12 

I 

2 

6 
9 

I 
J 
4 
12 

I 
8 

'k 

2 

Biology 

3 

2 

3 

2 

•• 

•• 

Botany  

Chemistry  
Civics  .  . 

IS 
10 

10 

13 

2 

Commercial  or  Indust.  Geog. 
Community  Civics  
Economics  
Economics  and  Civics 

6 
5 

I 
4 
IS 

2 

2 
3 

3 

I 

4 

2 
I 
I 

I 

•• 

3 

12 

4 
3 

IS 

2 

5 

7 
S 

7 

IS 

7 
4 
7 

I 
6 

English  
Business  English 

English  History  

5 

10 

9 

II 

I 
7 

I 

• 

2 

3 
'& 

i 
I 
I 

4 
5 

2 

5 
5 

2 

I 
I 
2 

French 

General  Science  

German 

Greek  

Gynasium 

History  of  Architecture  .... 

Hygiene.  .  .  . 

2 

9 

I 
5 
4 

2 
2 

2 

4 

I 

I 

4 

I 

I 
I 

I 
4 

2 
2 

I 

I 

I 
3 

I 

I 

3 

I 

I 

2 

5 

4 

3 

3 

5 

4 

2 
I 
I 
2 
I 

5 

I 
4 

2 

I 
3 

I 
I 

3 

2 

I 

Ind.  &  Com.  Hist.  (U.  S.  & 
local) 

Ind.  &  Com.  World  History 
Latin 

Mathematics  (not  defined)  . 
Med.  &  Modern  History.  .  . 
Mediaeval  History  only  .... 
Mod.  European  Hist.  only. 
Music  
Oral  English 

Physical  Geography  
Physics 

3 

12 

i 

i 

u 

I 

- 

3 

I 

I 
4 

2 
9 

I 
5 

II 

2 

I 

I 

8 
4 
3 

2 

I 

5 

I 
4 
6 

Plane  Geometry  
Public  Speaking 

10 

I 

10 

I 
I 
I 

Review      Mathematics     or 
Advanced  Mathematics.. 
Solid  Geometry  
Spanish    .  . 

5 
8 
6 

7 

'6 

7 

4 

2 

I 

I 

3 

Trigonometry  

Figure  27.     Table  Showing  Academic  and  General  Subjects  Studied  by  Boys 
Only,  in  15  Technical  High  Schools 


100 


TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


MAXIMUM  NUMBER  OF  YEARS 

YEARS  IN  WHICH 

No.  OF 

COURSE  is  OFFERED 

COURSE  is  OFFERED 

NAME  OF  COURSE 

SCHOOLS 
OFFERING 

T 

^ 

COURSE 

.Less 
than 

* 

i 

I* 

2 

3 

4 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

*yr. 

yr. 

yr. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

yrs. 

Algebra  I  (not  College 
Preparatory)  

8 

i 

i 

I 

5 

i 

.. 

I 

7 
I 

I 
j 

I 

J 

J 

Applied  Science 

Architectural  Drawing 

8 

I 

4 

2 

i 

2 

4 

7 

Drawing  (not  denned)  . 

3 

I 

i 

i 

2 

I 

2 

I 

Electrical  Theory  

2 

2 

I 

I 

Elementary   Represen- 
tation    and     Design 

(Sketching)  

4 

I 

2 

i 

I 

I 

I 

3 

Electricity        (includes 

Electrical    Construc- 

tion)   

7 

5 

2 

I 

I 

I 

6 

Free-hand  Drawing.  . 

5 

I 

I 

i 

2 

3 

3 

4 

2 

Mechanical  Drawing. 

IS 

.  . 

I 

I 

7 

2 

4 

10 

9 

II 

8 

Mechanics  

I 

I 

I 

Reading,        Drawings 

Sketching         

2 

2 

I 

I 

Shop  Mathematics... 

7 

i 

3 

2 

i 

2 

2 

3 

3 

Structural        Drafting 

and  Design 

3 

2 

i 

2 

I 

2 

Figure  28.     Statistics  of  Applied  Science,  Practical  Mathematics,  and  Drawing 
Courses  Offered  for  Boys  Only,  in  15  Technical  High  Schools 


NAME  OF  COURSE 

No.  OF 
SCHOOLS 
OFFERING 
COURSE 

MAXIMUM  NUMBER  OF  YEARS 
COURSE  is  OFFERED 

YEARS  IN  WHICH 
COURSE  is  OFFERED 

Less 
than 

iyr. 

i 

yr. 

I 

yr. 

i* 

yrs. 

2 

yrs. 

3 

yrs. 

4 
yrs. 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

Accounting  (Bookkeep- 
ing)   

6 

4 

2 
7 
I 

2 

2 
3 

I 

2 

I 

I 
I 

I 
3 

i 
i 

i 

i 

2 

i 
i 

4 
3 

I 
i 

•• 

2 

5 

I 

2 

3 

2 

I 

I 
I 

I 

4 
i 

4 
5 

i 
4 

2 

4 
5 

Business    Law    (Com- 
mercial Law)  
Business  or  Office  Prac- 
tice.    

Commercial  Arithmetic 
Indexing  

Penmanship  
Spelling  

3 

4 

S 
5 

I 

2 

Stenography       (Short- 
hand) 

Typewriting  

Figure  29.     Statistics  of  Commercial  Subjects  Offered  for  Boys  Only,  in  15 
Technical  High  Schools 


TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS   AND   CLASSES 


101 


Courses  of  Study 

The  material  presented  in  this  section  has  been  gathered 
from  an  examination  of  the  printed  courses  of  study  in  use 
by  the  technical  high  schools  in  1916  and  1917.  This  study 
has  been  supplemented  in  several  cases  by  correspondence  and 
by  personal  visits  to  the  schools  in  question.  In  Figures  27 
to  30  inclusive  are  shown  the  subjects  studied  by  boys  only 


NAME  OF  COURSE 

No.  OF 
SCHOOLS 
OFFERING 
COURSE 

MAXIMUM  NUMBER  OF  YEARS 
COURSE  is  OFFERED 

YEARS  IN  WHICH 
COURSE  is  OFFERED 

Less 
than 

|yr. 

i 

yr. 

i 

yr. 

I* 

yrs. 

2 

yrs. 

3 

yrs. 

4 
yrs. 

i 

I 

i 

2 

7 

2 

II 

i 
i 
7 

7 
3 

i 

i 
7 

III 
3 

2 

4 

3 
2 

I 

12 

IV 

2 

I 
I 

2 

I 
I 

IS 

Agriculture  
Art  Metal-  work 

3 
3 

12 

IS 
4 

I 

I 

i 

8 
5 

I 
I 
3 

6 

i 
i 

Blacksmithing  (Forge) 
Cabinet  -  making  or 

3 
2 

i 
i 

Carpentry  

I 

i 

Cement  and  Concrete. 
Foundry  

I 
7 

I 
IS 

I 

i 
4 

i 

2 

I 
3 

I 

Machine   Construction 
and  Tool-making.  .  . 
M  achine-Shop 

I 

5 

3 

2 

4 

7 

Figure  30.     Statistics  of  Shop  Courses  and  Field  Work  Offered  for  Boys  Only, 
in  15  Technical  High  Schools 

in  the  following  schools :  Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Bos- 
ton; Central  High  School,  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania;  Provi- 
dence Technical  High  School;  Central  High  School,  Minnea- 
polis; Technical  High  School,  Buffalo;  the  Newton  Technical 
High  School,  Newton,  Massachusetts;  Cass  Technical  High 
School,  Detroit;  Technical  High  School,  Fall  River,  Massa- 
chusetts; the  Lane  Technical  High  School,  Chicago;  Tech- 
nical High  School  Springfield,  Massachusetts ;  West  Technical 
High  School,  Cleveland;  Technical  High  School,  Atlanta, 
Georgia ;  Stuyvesant  High  School,  New  York ;  Technical  High 
School,  Scranton,  Pennsylvania;  Polytechnic  High  School, 
Riverside,  California. 


102 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


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TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS   AND   CLASSES  103 

No  similar  tabulation  was  made  of  the  subjects  offered 
for  girls  in  practical  arts  high  schools  nor  in  co-educational 
technical  high  schools.  This  omission  was  made  because  only 
a  few  girls'  technical  high  schools  are  in  existence  and  their 
courses  are  not  as  yet  well  standardized.  Moreover,  in  the 
co-educational  technical  high  schools  the  courses  attended  by 
girls  have  not  differed  to  any  great  extent  from  the  work 
offered  in  the  usual  general  high  school  course.  In  neither 
case  has  any  marked  contribution  yet  been  made  toward  the 
preparation  of  women  for  industrial  pursuits. 

Figure  31  shows  the  courses  of  study  offered  by  18  tech- 
nical high  schools  in  1916  and  1917.  In  making  the  tabulation 
for  the  four  preceding  tables  the  normal  school  courses  for 
boys  listed  in  Figure  31,  have  been  omitted. 

Facts  Revealed  by  Tables 

Three  important  points  are  brought  out  by  these  tables: 

1.  That  many  of  these  high  schools  give  opportunities 

for  college  preparatory  work  equivalent  to  that 
found  in  general  or  classical  high  schools. 

2.  That  comparatively  little  has  yet  been  accomplished 

by  way  of  adapting  the  resources  of  the  school  to 
meet  the  actual  needs  of  the  community. 

3.  The  aims  of  both  manual  training  and  technical  high 

schools  are  uncertain  and  their  work  is  not  being 
developed  in  co-operation  with  commercial  and  in- 
dustrial leaders. 

Aside  from  applied  mathematics  and  science,  little  is 
factory  that  is  of  immediate  value  to  most  industries.  With 
one  or  two  possible  exceptions,  shopwork  is  far  removed  from 
offered  processes  or  the  demands  of  commercial  establish- 
ments. 


CHAPTER  VII 

DEVELOPING  THE  POSSIBILITIES  OF  THE 
SCHOOLS 

Recent  Tendencies 

During  the  period  of  the  war  many  of  the  technical  high 
schools  utilized  their  shops  for  'training  soldiers  or  turning 
out  war  materials.  With  the  cessation  of  these  activities 
attention  has  been  turned  to  the  development  of  practical 
courses  which  would  come  within  the  limits  set  by  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Law.  The  Lane  Technical  High  School  of  Chicago, 
for  example,  now  offers  the  following  Smith-Hughes  courses: 

Architecture   % . .  4  years 

Machine-shop  practice   2 

Architectural  drawing   2       " 

Agriculture    2 

This  school  has  also  introduced  short-unit  courses  for 
bakers  and  for  plumbers'  apprentices,  and  conducts  evening 
school  classes  for  young  men  and  women  engaged  in  commer- 
cial work  and  in  industries. 

A  few  schools  have  carried  their  courses  into  the  field  of 
training  for  minor  executives  or  foremen.  Thus  Cass  Tech- 
nical High  School  in  Detroit  has  planned  classes  which  may 
be  held  either  in  the  school  or  in  the  shop  for  the  preparation 
of  foremen  employed  by  the  local  industries.  It  is  not  probable 
that  many  high  schools  now  have  among  their  instructors 
men  who  are  qualified  to  direct  this  kind  of  training.  For 
the  present,  it  would  seem  wiser  for  them  to  limit  the  scope 

104 


POSSIBILITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOLS  105 

of  their  work  to  that  intended  to  assist  younger  persons  and 
less  important  executives. 

The  variety  of  work  which  may  be  attempted  by  a  high 
school  which  sets  out  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  local  com- 
munity is  suggested  by  the  following  partial  list  of  course 
offered  at  the  Stuyvesant  High  School  in  New  York  City  in 
1918: 

Qualitative   and  quantitative  Instrument  making 

analysis  Milling    and    building    con- 
Topographical  drawing  struction 
Power-plant  drafting  Surveying 
Machine  design  Water      analysis       (applied 
Ship  design  and  construction  biology) 


For  a  further  consideration  of  the  work  done  in  various 
cities,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Appendix  A. 

Distribution  of  Technical  High  Schools 

The  technical  high  schools  established  prior  to  1914  were 
found  for  the  most  part  in  the  larger  cities  where  diversified 
industries  made  a  large  demand  upon  the  schools  for  trained 
leaders.  The  23  schools  listed  in  Figure  26  (page  98)  were 
distributed  as  follows : 

In  cities  of  450,000  population  or  over 1 1 

In  cities  of  100,000  or  over 7 

In  cities  of  less  than  100,000  population ; . .  5 

Total "23 

Of  the  schools  in  cities  under  100,000,  one  is  a  state 
school,  largely  devoted  to  agriculture,  and  the  work  done  by 
at  least  two  of  the  others  does  not  differ  materially  from  that 
done  in  the  usual  composite  or  general  high  school. 


106  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

There  seems  to  be  little  justification  for  the  erection  of 
separate  manual  training  or  technical  high  schools  in  cities 
with  a  population  less  than  100,000.  It  should  be  added, 
however,  that  far  less  cause  exists  for  the  maintenance  of 
separate  classical  high  schools  in  such  cities. 

A'  •• 
Special  Type  School:  Disadvantages 

Some  of  the  arguments  against  the  special  type  ochool  are 
suggested  in  the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  surveys.  Several 
complete  discussions  of  this  question  have  been  published1 
which  set  forth  in  much  greater  detail  than  can  be  attempted 
here  the  social  and  economic  disadvantages  of  the  special 
type  system.  The  problems  arising  out  of  the  needs  for 
dealing  with  large  numbers  of  students  and  the  difficulty  of 
finding  the  type  of  administrator  who  will  fully  sympathize 
with  the  varied  interests  of  a  composite  school,  may  make  it 
advisable  in  some  of  the  larger  cities  to  establish  a  few  special 
type  high  schools.  Where  the  population  of  the  city  is  scat- 
tered over  a  considerable  area,  much  of  which  is  without  ade- 
quate transportation  facilities,  as  is  the  case  in  San  Francisco, 
it  seems  to  be  much  more  advantageous  for  each  school  to 
give  a  general  course,  and  at  the  same  time  specialize  in  a 
given  field,  such  as  college  preparatory,  industrial,  technical, 
or  commercial.  The  chief  advantage  of  this  plan  lies  in  the 
fact  that  pupils  who  choose  a  course  poorly  adapted  to  their 
needs  or  abilities  can  be  more  readily  placed  in  congenial  work. 

In  any  event,  the  high  schools  of  a  city  should  be  ad- 
ministered as  a  unit  with  the  thought  of  adapting  their  work 
to  meet  the  social  and  economic  demands  of  the  community 
as  a  whole.  In  planning  courses  of  study,  in  offering  voca- 
tional guidance,  and  in  transferring  pupils  from  one  depart- 
ment to  another,  the  ideal  of  promoting  an  adequate,  well- 
integrated  educational  scheme  should  be  kept  to  the  fore. 

1  For   example,   Inglis,   A.  J.,   "The   Principles  of  Secondary  Education," 


POSSIBILITIES  OF  THE   SCHOOLS  107 

Prevocational  Education 

The  junior  high  school  helps  to  answer  several  questions 
which  arise  in  the  effort  to  define  the  aims  of  a  secondary 
technical  school.  The  need  is  eliminated  for  giving  a  year  of 
work  which  is  nearly  alike  in  all  the  courses,  a  practice  which 
appears  to  be  frequently  followed  in  four-year  high  schools. 
The  junior  high  school  graduate  ought  to  be  ready  to  enter 
at  once  upon  more  highly  specialized  instruction  than  is  now 
attempted  in  the  third  or  fourth  year  of  some  high  schools 
because  he  has  already  had  much  of  the  prevocational  ex- 
perience which  was  given  heretofore  in  the  high  school. 

The  strong  academic  trend  apparent  in  the  teaching  of 
so  many  of  the  schools  under  consideration  no  doubt  arises 
largely  from  a  desire  to  provide  in  advance  for  third-  and 
fourth-year  students  who  discover  late  in  their  course  that 
they  wish  to  continue  their  education  in  a  higher  institution. 
Subject  matter  and  method  are  determined  too  much  with  a 
view  to  satisfying  college  entrance  requirements,  and  too  little 
from  practical  economic  considerations.  The  fault  no  doubt 
arises  in  part  from  a  mistaken  conception  held  by  many 
teachers  of  mechanical  drawing  and  shop  subjects  as  to  the 
real  nature  and  purpose  of  their  work.  They  have  sought 
to  claim  for  their  subjects  the  same  advantages  which  tradi- 
tion ascribes  to  languages,  science,  and  mathematics.  Their 
work  has  been  planned  with  a  view  to  developing  abstract 
powers  of  accuracy,  reasoning,  and  critical  discrimination. 

Manual  Training  Aims  in  the  High  School 

A  few  leaders  have  maintained  that  the  manual  training 
and  technical  high  schools  should  abandon  the  effort  to  pre- 
pare for  college  and  concentrate  their  attention  upon  the  train- 
ing of  "non-commissioned  officers  for  industry/' 2  Although 


2  A  discussion  of  this  question  by  Arthur  L.  Williston  appears  in  the  "Proceedings 
of  the  National  Education  Association,"    1914,  page   577. 


108  TRAINING  INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

they  may  quite  justly  claim  that  the  real  work  of  these  schools 
has  suffered  through  their  effort  to  meet  college  entrance  and 
regents  examinations,  this  does'  not  need  to  be  true.  Such  an 
institution  as  the  Manual  Arts  High  School  of  Los  Angeles, 
with  its  extensive  plant  and  varied  activities,  not  only  gives 
a  far  more  effective  kind  of  preparation  for  college  than  the 
usual  classical  high  school,  but  offers  in  addition  technical 
instruction  of  a  kind  that  is  superior  to  that  provided  by  many 
of  the  special  type  schools.  The  trouble  has  been  not  so  much 
with  the  requirements  of  the  colleges  as  it  has  with  the 
teachers  and  principals  of  the  secondary  schools,  whose  think- 
ing has  been  dominated  by  the  necessity  for  formal  logical 
steps,  systematic  exercises,  and  an  outworn  theory  of  mental 
development. 

The  place  of  the  manual  training  high  school  in  the  general 
educational  scheme  has  shifted  considerably  since  these  schools 
were  first  organized.  At  present  there  appears  to  be  no 
justification  for  a  type  of  school  in  any  city  whose  vague 
purpose  is  "to  give  boys  and  girls  a  general  cultural  education, 
and  at  the  same  time  develop  their  mental  and  physical  activi- 
ties by  acquainting  them  with  materials,  tools,  and  processes." 
There  seem  to  be  two  courses  open  to  manual  training  and 
technical  high  schools  of  this  character.  They  may  follow 
the  example  of  the  George  Weitbrecht  Mechanic  Arts  High 
School  in  St.  Paul  and  become  general  high  schools,  or  they 
can  reorganize  and  intensify  their  work  to  meet  the  real 
demands  of  the  community  as  the  East  Technical  High  School 
in  Cleveland  is  endeavoring  to  do. 

Training  for  Junior  Industrial  Leaders 

One  of  the  claims  most  frequently  made  by  technical 
secondary  schools  is  that  they  prepare  young  men  and  women 
for  subordinate  managerial  and  executive  positions  or  for 
positions  as  assistants  to  technical  specialists.  There  is  un- 


POSSIBILITIES    OF    THE    SCHOOLS 


109 


questionably  a  considerable  demand  in  industry  for  persons 
with  less  training  than  is  given  by  the  engineering  colleges 
but  with  a  better  grasp  of  theoretical  principles  and  a  broader 
outlook  than  the  trade  school  usually  develops.  Figure  32 
gives  some  statistics  for  the  city  of  Minneapolis3  which  are 


Occupation 

Male 

Female 

Total 

Foreman  and  overseers  of  manufacturing 
and  mechanical  industries 

8^2 

128 

980 

Electrical  engineers           .    .  . 

817 

2 

819 

Mechanical  engineers        

no 

no 

Managers  and  superintendents  

770 

II 

7  qo 

Inspectors,  gaugers,  and  samplers  
Sales  agents          

133 

140 

12 

I  IT 

H5 

I  sr  r 

Foremen  and  overseers  of  railway  transpor- 
tation 

280 

289 

Foremen  and  overseers  of  road  and  street 
transportation      

66 

66 

Foremen,    telegraph   and   telephone    com- 
panies                       

36 

o 

AC 

Civil  engineers  and  surveyors  

296 

2O6 

Mining  engineers 

1-2 

•3? 

Designers                              

•2A 

•2  A 

Draftsmen  

2^7 

4. 

261 

Foremen  and  overseers  —  lumber  
Foremsn,  overseers,  and  inspectors  —  mining 

20 

9 

20 

9 

Total 

1  8^1 

181 

4OI  2 

Figure  32.     Table  of   "Non-Commissioned  Officers"   of    Industry    in 

Minneapolis 

These  figures  compiled  from  the  United  States  Census  of  1910,  Vol.  IV,  show  only  approxi- 
mately the  number  of  such  persons. 

suggestive  of  the  number  of  persons  who  may  be  expected  to 
enter  such  employment.  On  the  basis  of  143,482  wage-earners 
in  Minneapolis  in  1910,  the  positions  listed  in  this  table 
represent  about  2.8  per  cent  of  the  total  number  employed. 
The  survey  report  draws  the  following  conclusions  from 


3  Vocational  Education  Survey  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.    See  Appendix  page  356. 


1 10  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

its  study.  It  should  be  pointed  out  that  these  are  only  general 
statements  based  upon  a  somewhat  superficial  study  made 
some  years  ago. 

1.  It  is  estimated  that  the  salaries  of  these  persons  fall 

for  the  most  part  between  $75  and  $200  per  month, 
95  per  cent  receiving  from  $75  to  $150  and  the 
remainder  from  $150  to  $200. 

2.  These  positions  were  gained: 

(a)  By  chance  promotion  after  long  service  in  firms 

where  little  attention  is  given  to  selecting 
men  or  to  mapping  out  lines  of  promotion. 

(b)  By  personal  study  and  analysis  of  the  tasks 

ahead  of  them  on  the  part  of  persons  who 
were  determined  to  succeed. 

(c)  By  starting  at  the  bottom  and  preparing  for 

promotion  through  evening  classes  or  cor- 
respondence courses. 

(d)  By  transfer  to  business,  directive,  or  technical 

posts  of  men  who  had  served  a  brief  ap- 
prenticeship after  thorough  preparation  in 
colleges  or  technical  institutions. 

(e)  By  graduates  of  the  high  school  manual  train- 

ing course  who  knew  how  to  read  blue-prints 
and  who  had  an  elementary  knowledge  of 
tools,  materials,  and  processes. 

This  report  appears  to  underestimate  considerably  the 
number  of  persons  who  require  technical  training  for  positions 
of  this  kind.  There  are  a  number  of  important  classifications 
entirely  omitted,  such  as  chemists,  foremen,  and  department 
heads  in  the  wholesale  and  retail  trade,  women  employed  as 
executive  secretaries  and  as  supervisors  and  executives  in  a 
variety  of  small  establishments,  and  persons  in  the  public 
service. 


POSSIBILITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOLS 


III 


Technical  Training  and  Shipbuilding 

The  relative  number  of  persons  with  training  equivalent 
to  that  offered  in  a  four-year  secondary  technical  school,  who 


Department 


Anglesmiths,  blacksmiths,  drop  forg- 
ing, and  die-sinking 

Boiler-shop 255 

Copper-shop 100 

Electrical  shop 279 

Erecting   rades1 3161 

Fitters 492 

Foundry 252 

Joiner-shop . . . 
Machine-shop 

Mold  loft 123 

Naval     architecture     (all     drafting 

work) 240 

Outside  machinists 405 

Paintshop 379 

Pattern-shop 

Pipeshop  and  plumbing2 

Sheet-me  al  shop 177 

Ship  carpenters : .  473 

Steelmill 716 

Yard  riggers  and  laborers 1,049 

Total..                              ..  10,; 


Total 

Number 

Employed 

in  These 

Depart- 

ments 


Number  of 

Persons 

Needing 

Technical 

Training 


20 
25 


128 
162 

26 
166 

39 

2003 

91 
20 

105 

49 
36 

4i 


Approx- 

imate 
Per  Cent 

Needing 
Technical 
Training 


JO 

53 

4 

33 

20 
IO 


23 

5 

61 

18 

28 

8 

6 

4 


1  Includes  chipping,  calking,  bolting,  drilling,  reaming,  riveting,  erecting,  and  testing. 

2  Includes  machinists  who  install  turrets,  ordnance  handling  machinery,  etc. 

3  No  exact  data  available.     Probably  nearly  all  of  these  persons  should  have  technical 
training. 

Figure  33.     Table   Showing   Percentage  of   Minor  Executives  and   Other 
Persons  Needing  Technical  Training  in  the  Leading  Trades  in  the   Ship- 
building Industry 

Based  on  totals  for  two  yards  building  steel  ships. 

are  needed  in  the  shipbuilding  industry,  is  roughly  estimated 
in  Figure  33.  A  shipyard  building  steel  ships  includes  a  wide 
range  of  manufacturing  and  construction  work  in  both  metals 


112  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

and  wood.  Outside  of  the  actual  ship  construction,  men  are 
employed  in  from  eighteen  to  twenty  shops  and  mills,  such 
as  the  steelmill,  the  pattern-shop,  the  machine-shop,  the 
foundry,  the  sheet-metal  shop,  and  the  mold  loft.  In  the 
group  regarded  as  needing  technical  training  were  included 
foremen,  assistant  foremen,  gang  leaders,  estimators,  rate- 
setters  and  time-study  men,  special  draftsmen  and  clerks  in 
shop  offices,  and  men  engaged  in  highly  skilled  work  requiring 
either  long  experience,  or  technical  training  and  a  short  period 
of  apprenticeship.  This  estimate  does  not  include  many  men 
engaged  on  skilled  or  semiskilled  work  whose  production  and 
general  efficiency  would  be  greatly  increased  by  two  to  four 
years  of  technical  preparation. 

These  figures  seem  to  show  the  need  in  the  shipbuilding 
industry  for  a  considerable  number  of  employees  with  more 
training  than  is  ordinarily  offered  in  the  trade  school  and  less 
than  that  expected  of  marine  architects  or  engineers.  Plans 
for  vocational  guidance  as  well  as  technical  education  should 
be  based  upon  more  complete  investigations,  somewhat  along 
the  lines  indicated  above,  which  would  show  the  number  of 
such  positions  as  well  as  the  kind  of  preparation  required  for 
them. 

Co-operation  of  Public  and  Industry 

As  pointed  out  in  Chapter  I,  there  is  no  good  reason  why 
industrial  concerns  should  set  up  educational  departments  for 
teaching  mathematics,  applied  science,  economics,  or  drawing. 
These  are  all  parts  of  an  education  of  general  value  to  an 
employee  in  almost  any  industry;  the  burden  ought  to  be 
borne  by  the  community  and  not  by  a  few  industries  that 
have  the  vision  to  see  that  education  pays.  Our  technical  high 
schools  are  the  logical  center  for  such  work  and  will  un- 
doubtedly come  in  time  to  accept  a  large  part  of  it.  The  Lane 
Technical  High  School  in  Chicago  has  made  a  small  beginning 


POSSIBILITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOLS  1 13 

by  offering  special  courses  for  bakers'  and  plumbers'  appren- 
tices. What  is  urgently  needed  is  a  rapid  extension  to  industrial 
fields  of  the  kind  of  work  which  has  so  long  occupied  our 
attention  for  a  few  trades  such  as  wood-working,  electricity, 
and  machine-shop  practice.  It  may  very  well  be  that  the 
bulk  of  this  must  be  done  in  the  factory,  but  certainly,  no 
serious  beginning  will  be  made  until  both  schoolmen  and  in- 
dustrial executives  face  the  issue  and  endeavor  to  come  to- 
gether to  work  out  a  program. 

Special  Training  for  Leadership 

Educators  in  technical  institutions  have  usually  mapped  out 
their  courses  of  study  and  planned  their  teaching  with  a  view 
to  the  technical  factors  involved  in  production.  The  subjects 
taught  and  the  methods  of  instruction  are  all  adapted  to  in- 
crease the  workman's  skill  or  his  understanding  of  the  prin- 
ciples involved  in  dealing  with  machinery,  materials,  and 
processes.  Schools  as  well  as  business  concerns  have  given 
very  little  thought  to  the  kind  of  men  who  should  be  selected 
as  gang  leaders  and  foremen  or  to  preparing  them  to  meet 
the  technical  details  of  leadership. 

In  advocating  his  plan  of  functional  foremanship,  Taylor 
tried  to  avoid  some  of  the  evils  which  arose  from  placing  a 
great  variety  of  tasks  in  the  hands  of  men  who  were  not 
prepared  to  meet  them.  It  requires  little  imagination  to  pic- 
ture the  mental  perplexity  of  many  a  foreman  promoted  from 
a  relatively  simple  day's  routine  to  face  a  confusing  array  of 
duties — inspection  of  product  and  machinery,  arranging  for 
new  equipment  or  repairs,  caring  for  raw  materials,  fixing 
costs,  altering  rates,  keeping  production  records,  training  new 
recruits,  disciplining  offenders,  selecting  and  rating  employees, 
meeting  the  constantly  varying  demands  that  come  with  a 
growing  department  and  increased  production.  By  organizing 
a  special  department  of  industrial  relations  or  employment 


H4  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

management,  the  foremen  are  relieved  of  part  of  the  respon- 
sibility for  the  selection,  education,  discharge,  and  promotion 
of  employees.  Even 'after  responsibility  for  these  matters 
has  been  assumed  by  a  special  department,  the  foreman,  de- 
partment head,  or  group  leader  must  still  recognize  a  variety 
of  personnel  factors  in  his  management  if  he  is  to  succeed 
in  doing  his  part  in  building  up  a  stable  and  harmonious 
organization.  Much  of  this  success  lies  with  the  temperament 
of  the  person,  but  a  great  deal  can  be  acquired  through  training. 

Possibilities  of  the  Technical  High  School 

Although  the  training  of  both  employment  managers  and 
foremen  must  be  accomplished  for  the  most  part  in  higher 
institutions,  and  through  part-time  courses  for  adults,  there 
is  a  well-defined  field  of  preparation  for  personnel  manage- 
ment of  a  simpler  kind  which  may  well  be  attempted  by  the 
secondary  technical  school.  It  ought  to  be  quite  possible  to 
set  any  of  the  students  in  part-time  or  evening  classes  and 
many  of  the  boys  in  the  regular  third-  or  fourth-year  classes 
to  thinking  seriously  about  general  labor  problems  and 
especially  about  appropriate  methods  of  dealing  with  em- 
ployees. The  elementary  principles  involved  in  wage-setting, 
scientific  management,  and  plant  sanitation,  the  history  and 
aims  of  organized  labor,  hours  of  labor  and  fatigue,  accident 
prevention,  occupational  disease,  and  the  labor  costs  of  opera- 
tion are  among  the  numerous  topics  which  may  profitably 
receive  attention.  Advanced  pupils  may  very  well  consider 
some  of  the  problems  involved  in  participation  in  management 
through  committees  of  employees,  advisory  councils,  em- 
ployees' associations,  or  foremen's  meetings. 

Courses  in  Management 

Many  secondary  schools  could  profitably  undertake  the 
adaptation  of  certain  of  their  courses  to  meet  the  needs  of 


POSSIBILITIES   OF   THE   SCHOOLS 

managers  and  executives  in  smaller  business  houses  and  manu- 
facturing concerns.  An  instructive  article  by  Stanley  A.  Den- 
nis, "When  Will  My  Business  Die/'  appeared  in  System, 
October,  1917.  An  investigator  for  System's  Bureau  of 
Standards  studied  the  financial  histories  of  2,550  retail  con- 
cerns, 1,327  factories,  and  492  wholesale  houses  in  a  typical 
American  city.  During  a  period  of  30  years,  62  per  cent 
of  the  manufacturers,  58.6  per  cent  of  the  retailers,  and  51 
per  cent  of  the  wholesalers  failed  or  went  out  of  business. 

Dun's  Review  for  1917  reports  3,691  failures  among  manu- 
facturing firms  with  liabilities  of  $79,543,000.  Failures  among 
commercial  houses  in  the  same  year  according  to  the  Statistical 
Abstract  of  the  United  States,  totaled  13,855  with  liabilities  of 
$1,733,225. 

Causes  of  Failure 

Analysis  of  the  causes  of  these  business  failures  shows 
that  a  large  proportion  of  them  are  due  to  the  inability  of 
executives  to  apply  some  of  the  elementary  principles  of  or- 
ganization and  management.  A  great  majority  of  the  men  who 
are  responsible  executives  in  small  firms  today  have  had  less 
than  a  high  school  education.  Even  those  who  have  been 
trained  in  the  secondary  schools  have  not  as  a  rule  become 
acquainted  with  any  of  the  practical  fundamental  principles 
of  economics  or  the  basic  methods  of  business  management. 
The  emphasis  in  commercial  courses  has  been  upon  clerical 
training  and  not  at  all  upon  the  technical  aspects  of  organizing 
and  controlling  the  commercial  or  industrial  enterprise. 

The  Present  Opportunity 

In  the  field  of  part-time  and  continuation  education,  work 
of  this  kind  offers  a  splendid  opportunity,  and  certain  aspects 
of  it  may  well  be  developed  in  regular  high  school  courses. 
Every  large  industrial  establishment  offers  numerous  oppor- 


Il6  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

tunities  for  the  boy  with  a  certain  type  of  practical  business 
training;  the  toolroom,  the  stockroom,  receiving  and  shipping 
departments,  shop  offices,  time-keeping,  rate-setting,  and  time 
study  are  only  a  few  of  numerous  opportunities.  For  all  of 
them,  the  boy  needs  a  very  different  kind  of  instruction  from 
what  the  usual  type  of  commercial  school  offers.  If  the  high 
school  is  to  become  a  real  factor  in  industrial  education, 
teachers  and  department  heads  must  gain  a  fresh  insight  into 
local  needs.  Courses  such  as  those  for  minor '  executives 
outlined  in  Chapter  XI  can  doubtless  be  organized  by  com- 
petent high  school  instructors  and  given  either  in  the  school 
building  or  in  the  plant.  The  essential  practicality  of  the 
instruction  need  not  suffer,  and  if  it  is  properly  planned,  a 
considerable  content  can  be  included  which  is  often  to  be  omitted 
where  intensive  work  is  done  wholly  at  the  company's  expense. 

Present  Handicaps 

Two  types  of  secondary  schools,  as  has  been  noted,  have 
tried  to  adapt  their  courses  to  industrial  needs,  the  technical 
high  school  and  the  cosmopolitan  or  general  high  school.  The 
work  so  far  attempted  has  been  compromised  by  powerful 
academic  traditions.  Much  of  it  even  today  is  manual  train- 
ing of  doubtful  value  either  as  cultural  or  vocational  educa- 
tion. Radical  changes  in  the  character  of  the  teaching  and 
supervisory  staff  must  occur  if  the  high  school  is  to  become 
a  community  center  for  the  education,  vocational  guidance, 
and  training  of  minors  employed  in  industry. 

Still  more  changes  are  necessary  if  the  schools  are  to 
serve  effectively  the  older  employees.  A  more  general  ap- 
preciation of  the  possibilities  of  the  schools  is  much  to  be 
desired.  It  needs  to  be  understood  that  the  old  purposes  are 
not  adequate  today.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  an  enlightened 
public  will  be  more  insistent  on  having  all  the  schools  organized 
and  directed  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  new  age. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

RELATION  OF  EMPLOYMENT  MANAGEMENT  TO 
INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING 

Employment  Management — A  New  Profession 

Few  social  or  industrial  developments  can  parallel  the 
employment  management  movement  in  extent  and  rapidity  of 
growth.  Aside  from  sporadic  attempts  to  interest  employers 
in  "welfare"  activities,  very  little  attention  had  been  given  to 
organized  personnel  work  previous  to  1912.  In  that  year, 
the  Boston  Employment  Managers'  Association  was  formed, 
the  first  meetings  being  held  at  the  invitation  of  the  Vocation 
Bureau  of  Boston.  Less  than  a  half-dozen  of  the  charter 
members  of  the  association  could  call  themselves  employment 
managers  in  the  sense  in  which  the  term  is  now  used;  the 
remainder  were  superintendents,  managers,  teachers,  and 
others  who  were  interested  in  labor  matters.  At  that  time 
there  were  probably  less  than  a  dozen  concerns  in  the  United 
States  having  functionalized  industrial  relations  departments. 
In  Europe  the  movement  was  then  unknown  and  even  now 
has  made  little  progress;  the  same  is  true  of  Canada. 

There  are  now1  thirty-three  local  employment  managers' 
associations  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States  and  a  strong 
national  association.  There  are  two  government  departments 
with  special  staffs  engaged  in  the  study  of  employment  man- 
agement methods,  and  special  courses  for  training  employ- 
ment managers  have  been  permanently  established  in  several 
universities.  The  leading  technical  and  trade  journals  are 


1  May,    1919.     The   national   organization  is   now  known  as  the   Industrial   Rela- 
tions Association   of  America. 

117 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

devoting  attention  to  various  phases  of  the  field  and  there 
is  a  rapidly  growing  list  of  books  and  pamphlets  worthy  of 
being  called  scientific  contributions  to  a  new  profession. 

Evolution  of  Employment  Management 

Historically,  the  employment  department  may  be  regarded 
as  an  outgrowth  of  several  significant  modern  movements, 
some  of  them  of  general  public  interest  and  others  confined 
more  strictly  to  industrial  management.  Among  them  are  the 
general  drift  in  administration  toward  staff  departments  or 
functional  management,  the  evolution  of  cost  accounting,  cam- 
paigns for  safety,  sanitation,  and  hygiene,  the  vocational 
guidance  movement,  the  enactment  of  factory  legislation  and 
labor  laws,  and  general  progress  in  applied  psychology, 
sociology,  and  medical  science.  Perhaps  the  movement  having 
the  most  obvious  connection  with  employment  management 
is  the  tendency  toward  functionalized  management.  Success- 
ful industrial  experience  has  made  clear  the  need  for  a  general 
manager  whose  principal  duties  consist  in  translating  the  aims 
and  policies  of  the  concern  into  action  and  in  correlating  or 
harmonizing  the  work  of  the  several  departments  into  which 
the  organization  is  divided.  To  accomplish  this,  the  general 
manager  must  have  the  assistance  of  specialists  who  con- 
centrate upon  a  limited  field,  acquiring  the  specific  information 
upon  which  decisions  are  based  and  plans  are  executed.  Recent 
experience  has  demonstrated  that  the  functions  which  center 
in  the  service  department  are  fully  as  important  and  can  be 
as  clearly  defined  as  those  which  have  already  been  segregated 
under  the  cost  accountant,  the  sales  manager,  or  the  super- 
intendent of  production. 

Relieving  the  Foreman 

Functionalized  personnel  management  relieves  the  foreman 
quite  as  much  as  the  general  manager.  Most  manufacturers 


EMPLOYMENT  MANAGEMENT  1 19 

have  already  taken  from  the  foreman  supervision  over  the 
development  of  experimental  work,  the  purchase  of  raw 
materials  and  new  equipment,  the  computation  of  costs,  and 
even  the  planning  and  routing  of  production.  If  the  foreman 
cannot  be  expected  to  specialize  in  any  of  these  activities, 
much  less  can  he  effectively  discharge  the  time-consuming  and 
highly  technical  duties  related  to  the  selection,  promotion, 
training,  discharge,  and  welfare  of  employees.  Professor 
Edward  D.  Jones  has  thus  summarized  the  advantages  of 
centralized  employment  control  over  the  older  "foremanizing" 
methods: 

In  this  way  the  general  shop  foreman  is  relieved  of 
hiring  friends  of  employees  in  his  own  department  who  im- 
portune him  for  selected  jobs  merely  on  the  basis  of  friend- 
ship and  not  fitness.  He  is  no  longer  a  "bouncer."  He  no 
longer  can  sell  jobs,  or  hold  his  pets  in  soft  assignments. 
He  has  not  the  easy  device  of  covering  his  own  incom- 
petence by  firing  a  man.  He  can  ask  for  the  transfer  of 
unsatisfactory  employees,  but  if  enough  of  these  transfers 
show  that  discarded  persons  are  able  to  make  good  in  an- 
other shop  where  the  foremanizing  is  different,  he  prepares 
a  prima  facie  case  against  himself.  The  foreman  gets  a 
more  even  and  dependable  run  of  workmen  from  the  employ- 
ment department  than  he  can  provide  for  himself.  And  he 
is  freed  from  many  distractions  to  become  an  expert  in  shop 
manufacturing  processes.  The  employment  manager  must 
find  a  way  to  secure  the  enthusiastic  co-operation  of  the 
foremen  with  whom  he  works,  and  to  enlist  their  sympathy 
with  the  policies  of  the  management,  and  of  his  own  depart- 
ment, as  if  those  policies  were  their  own. 

Service  Department — Self-Supporting 

A  service  department  rightly  managed  does  not  mean  an 
increased  burden  upon  the  cost  of  doing  business.  On  the 
contrary,  the  service  manager  ought  to  be  constantly  on  the 
alert  to  discover  and  eliminate  the  needless  wastes  in  produc- 


120 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 


tion  costs  which  are  certain  to  be  found  in  any  large  organiza- 
tion. The  service  manager  ought  to  be  the  labor  cost  ac- 
countant of  industry.  .Cost  accounting  was  formerly  confined 
to  simple  records  of  labor,  material,  and  arbitrary  overhead 
charges  for  general  expenses.  In  recent  years  it  has  grown 
much  more  searching,  and  is  now  being  applied  to  the  minute 
analysis  of  those  factors  which  increase  or  diminish  the  effi- 
ciency of  labor.  No  factory  manager  can  afford  to  neglect  a 
careful  study  of  the  costs  due  to  labor  turnover,  to  absen- 
teeism, to  tardiness,  to  accidents,  to  improperly  trained  men, 
and  to  unskilled  persons  who  have  been  assigned  to  tasks  for 
which  they  are  unfitted. 

Service  Department  and  Physical  Well-Being 

Next  to  the  initial  selection  and  the  training  of  the  em- 
ployee, the  supervision  of  his  health  and  safety  are  of  greatest 
importance.  Here  again  we  find  evidence  of  public  interest 
and  well-defined  industrial  movements  which  have  crystallized 
in  the  recognition  of  hygiene,  safety,  and  sanitation  as  im- 
portant functions  of  the  service  department. 


Defect 

Number 
Inspected 

Number 
Defective 

Percentage 
Defective 

Clothing  defective 

2-j  cr  706 

17  64.0 

52C 

Footgear  defective    .  . 

27C  706 

36  OO3 

•  •*  o 
IO    72 

Uncleanliness  of  head  

33  "?,7o6 

47,638 

14    IO 

Uncleanliness  of  body  

•22  C,7o6 

20,84.1? 

6.  21 

Malnutrition  

333,  3Q<? 

44,176 

13  •  2t; 

Disease  of  nose  and  throat 

77  C  8l2 

60  614 

2O   73 

Dental  disease                                   .  • 

302,4.00 

200,010 

60.  12 

Defective  hearing  

238,120 

26,373 

II.OS 

Defective  vision 

71,128 

12,221 

17    ?o 

Figure  34.     Statistics  on  Defects  among  School  Children,  Reported  by  the 
Local  Education  Authorities  in  England  for  1915 

Annual  Report  for  1915  of  the  Chief  Medical  Officer  of  the  Board  of  Education,    page  27. 


EMPLOYMENT  MANAGEMENT  121 

Charles  W.  Eliot,  President  Emeritus  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, has  pointed  out  in  a  recent  paper  some  of  the  defects 
in  American  education  together  with  the  remedies  for  them. 
Dr.  Eliot's  observations  may  be  found  in  Teachers  Leaflets 
No.  5,  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  1918.  He  lays 
particular  stress  upon  our  failure,  as  shown  by  the  results 
of  the  examinations  for  the  army  draft,  to  produce  young 
men  who  are  physically  fit.  The  percentage  of  defective  per- 
sons discovered  among  the  young  men  drafted  for  military 
and  naval  service  has  been  "a  source  of  surprise  and  mortifica- 
tion" to  everyone  who  was  not  thoroughly  acquainted  with 


Nature  of  Defect 


Number 


Decayed,  irregular  and  unclean  teeth,  pyorrhea  and  alveolar 

abscess 

Nose,  throat,  and  mouth  defects 

Eye  complaints 

Skin  diseases 

Anaemia  and  poor  nutrition 

Ear  complaints 

Nerve  disorders   . 


76,923 
28,401 
21,960 
25,313 

3,222 

1,681 
568 


Figure  35.     Table  Showing  Defects  Among  62,027  School  Children  in 

Philadelphia 

"Medical  Inspection  of  Schools  and  Child  Hygiene  of  Philadelphia."  Reprint  from 
Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Health  of  the  Department  of  Public  Health  and  Charities 

for  1916,  page  36. 

the  conditions  existing  among  the  children  in  our  public 
schools.  The  statistics  kept  by  the  few  cities  which  have  had 
some  adequate  form  of  medical  supervision  indicate  that  the 
percentage  of  pupils  who  are  physically  defective  is  very  large 
indeed.  Figures  34,  35,  and  36  suggest  the  conditions  known 
to  exist  in  the  United  States  and  in  England. 

It  is  to  the  interest  of  employers  of  labor  to  be  aware  of 
the  means  which  can  be  applied  to  remedy  this  situation. 
Rejecting  the  cases  showing  major  defects  and  placing  to 


122  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

advantage  those  who  are  physically  and  mentally  handicapped 
solves  only  a  part  of  the  problem.  Policies  of  more  far- 
reaching  influence  must  be  adopted.  Industries  will  profit  by 
co-operation  with  public  and  private  agencies  seeking  to 
promote  the  public  health,  as  well  as  by  installing  complete 
medical  departments  of  their  own.  Union  labor  has  come 
to  recognize  the  value  to  the  worker  as  well  as  to  the  em- 


Nature  of  Defect 

Percentage 

Defective  teeth. 

46  6 

Throat  trouble   

18  4. 

Enlarged  glands  .... 

12    0 

Defective  eyesight.  

II    7 

Nasal  trouble  .  .  .  ..  

10.6 

Defective  hearing 

i  6 

Other  defects  

8.* 

Children  having  defects 

64.  3 

Figure  36.  Table  Showing  Percentages  of  Children  Having  Certain  Physical 
Defects.  Based  on  the  Examination  of  559,863  Children  in  9  Cities  in  the 

United  States 
Adapted  from  "Medical  Inspection  of  Schopls  (page  38),  by  Gulick  and  Ayres,    (1913). 

pioyer  of  the  initial  examination  and  later  medical  attention, 
and  has  indorsed  the  physical  examination  of  applicants  and 
other  work  done  by  industrial  physicians  and  nurses. 

Utilizing  the  Industrial  Physician 

To  be  sure,  it  will  be  difficult  for  some  years  to  come 
to  find  men  who  have  the  training  or  the  point  of  view 
essential  to  success  as  industrial  physicians.  Nevertheless,  the 
employment  manager  who  wishes  to  train  his  staff  can  accom- 
plish a  great  deal  by  way  of  developing  an  understanding  of 
the  physical  requirements  of  the  occupations  represented  in 
his  industry.  Through  a  relatively  short  period  of  personal 


EMPLOYMENT  MANAGEMENT  123 

investigation,  physicians  and  nurses  can  become  acquainted 
with  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  factory  and  with  the 
physical  limitations  which  ought  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  plac- 
ing an  employee. 

One  of  the  great  services  which  can  be  rendered  by  the 
industrial  physician  is  assistance  in  placing  sailors  and  soldiers 
handicapped  in  the  course  of  the  war,  and  in  caring  for  our 
industrial  cripples.  Simple  amputation  cases  really  make  up 
only  a  small  percentage  of  the  total  number  of  those  who 
suffer  from  some  form  of  physical  disability,  and  are  as  a  rule 
the  easiest  cases  to  adjust  to  satisfactory  employment.  Much 
more  numerous  are  the  men  and  women  suffering  from  com- 
plex ailments  or  physical  disabilities,  and  they  cannot  be  safely 
placed  except  with  the  assistance  of  persons  who  combine 
medical  training  with  an  intimate  knowledge  of  factory  con- 
ditions. 

Accident  Prevention 

Through  state  intervention  and  by  reason  of  the  activities 
of  organized  labor,  insurance  companies,  and  safety-first 
organizations,  accident  prevention  has  been  made  a  part  of 
the  work  now  being  carried  on  in  many  establishments.  Al- 
though much  has  been  accomplished,  added  interest  must  be 
felt  in  this  matter  if  we  really  are  to  serve  the  interests  of 
the  employee. 

Management  and  Labor  in  Co-operation 

The  true  service  manager  should  be  able  to  bring  both 
management  and  labor  to  see  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by 
protecting  the  lives  and  health  of  workers.  He  must  bring 
them  to  realize  that  provision  for  cafeterias,  better  housing, 
medical  attention,  the  elimination  of  unnecessary  fatigue,  the 
improvement  of  plant  sanitation,  and  better  transportation 
from  and  to  the  place  of  work  are  properly  included  in  any 


124  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

co-operative  effort  undertaken  to  increase  the  general  effi- 
ciency of  the  labor  force. 

•  .          ** 

Labor  Legislation 

If  we  may  judge  by  the  experience  of  the  past  few  years, 
the  next  decade  will  see  the  enactment  of  a  large  body  of  far 
from  perfect  state  and  federal  labor  legislation.  Mere  de- 
nunciation of  this  tendency,  or  even  organized  opposition, 
will  be  largely  fruitless.  It  will  be  much  better  to  develop 
staff  assistants  in  employment  departments  who  through  their 
records  and  their  research  studies  can  provide  the  data  upon 
which  better  legislation  can  be  based.  The  National  Employ- 
ment Managers'  Association  and  the  local  organizations  ought 
gradually  to  come  to  the  place  where  they  can  exercise  a 
profound  influence  upon  the  course  of  legislative  action.  No 
other  group  of  persons  will  be  in  a  position  to  see  the  needs 
of  labor  so  clearly  nor  to  interpret  them  so  'sympathetically. 

Employment  Management  and  Social  Progress 

It  is  only  rarely  that  a  concern  without  centralized  control 
of  employment  is  able  to  co-operate  effectively  with  vocational 
guidance  agencies  or  with  other  organized  efforts  to  improve 
social  conditions  in  the  community.  Still  less  frequently  does 
such  a  concern  attempt  experimental  or  research  work  in  the 
province  of  human  relations  although  both  applied  psychology 
and  sociology  have  opened  extremely  attractive  avenues  for 
study  and  experimentation. 

It  is  the  increasing  appreciation  of  the  relation  of  the 
Tganized  employment  department  to  these  new  possibilities 
-hat  accounts  for  the  rapid  growth  of  such  departments.  The 
situation  in  business  as  in  the  other  affairs  of  society  is  becom- 
ing increasingly  complex.  New  problems  are  constantly 
developing  under  the  conditions  of  modern  industry.  Some 
old  questions  have  become  more  acute. 


EMPLOYMENT  MANAGEMENT          125 

The  application  of  scientific  principles  and  methods  will 
do  much  to  hasten  the  solution  of  such  problems  as  those  of 
fatigue,  the  use  of  non-financial  incentives,  increased  enjoy- 
ment of  work,  the  selection,  training,  and  advancement  of 
employees,  the  adjustment  of  machines  and  methods  to  suit 
the  psychology  of  the  worker.  So  long  as  these  new  move- 
ments remain  in  the  experimental  stage,  however,  industry 
can  expect  to  get  little  more  than  suggestions  as  to  points  of 
departure  from  the  scientist  or  social  worker  unacquainted 
with  the  practical  details  of  manufacture.  Substantial  ad- 
vancement is  now  being  achieved  and  can  be  hoped  for  in 
much  larger  degree  through  the  efforts  of  trained  men  and 
women  who  approach  these  questions  from  the  practical, 
scientific  point  of  view  of  staff  specialists. 

Functions  of  the  Service  Manager 

Briefly  stated,  the  task  of  the  employment  or  service 
manager  is  to  recruit,  train,  an^  maintain  a  stable,  efficient 
working  force.  In  some  respects  he  may  be  said  to  practice 
the  profession  of  human  engineering;  he  prepares  specifica- 
tions and  a  schedule  of  labor  needs,  selects  his  material  with 
care,  adapts  it  to  the  demands  of  his  concern,  and  applies 
scientific  principles  in  developing  and  maintaining  its  efficiency. 
But  there  are  important  points  at  which  the  analogy  to  en- 
gineering breaks  down.  The  really  efficient  employment  man- 
ager is  not  engaged  in  "handling  men."  He  works  with  men 
in  a  co-operative  enterprise,  helping  each  party  to  the  under- 
taking to  render  the  maximum  service  and  derive  the  greatest 
possible  benefit  from  the  association.  In  all  matters  affecting 
the  labor  contract  or  employment  conditions,  he  is  the  imme- 
diate representative  of  three  separate  interests — management, 
labor,  and  the  local  community.  Indirectly,  he  must  also 
voice  the  best  interests  of  capital  and  the  public.  Each  of 
these  groups  he  must  protect,  serve,  and  interpret  to  the 


126  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

others.  Wherever  employment  departments  have  broken  away 
from  the  tendency  to  become  mere  employment  bureaus  exer- 
cising only  selective  and  clerical  functions,  and  have  adopted 
this  wider  conception  of  their  place  in  the  community,  they 

may  be  called  properly  "service  departments." 

- 

Lessons  from  War  Emergency 

The  demands  made  by  increased  production  under  war- 
emergency  conditions  necessitated  extreme  measures  in  re- 
cruiting employees.  Realizing  the  impossibility  of  meeting 
the  situation  through  their  older  methods,  most  industries 
readily  adopted  the  suggestion  of  various  government  depart- 
ments— that  a  director  of  industrial  relations  be  employed. 
But  too  many  firms  were  satisfied  with  securing  employment 
managers  whose  sole  duty  was  to  recruit  labor.  While  con- 
tact with  the  sources  of  labor  supply  and  the  right  selection 
of  employees  were  essential,  it  was  plain  that  ,the  employment 
manager  must  be  given  authority  to  deal  with  other  important 
matters  if  conditions  were  to  be  improved.  The  shipyards, 
as  well  as  many  other  war  industries,  finally  realized  that  lay- 
ing the  emphasis  entirely  upon  recruiting  led  to  a  tremendous 
waste  of  energy.  They  discovered  that  their  task  could  be 
accomplished  only  by  training  new  employees  and  by  making 
a  systematic  effort  to  hold  the  men  they  already  had  in  their 
organizations.  Figures  37  and  38  outline  the  activities  of  a 
service  department  developed  with  these  aims  in  view.  They 
enumerate  all  of  the  more  important  functions  which  devolve 
upon  the  service  manager  as  the  result  of  experience  in  both 
industrial  and  commercial  enterprises. 

Selection  and  Assignment  of  Employees 

The  judicious  selection  and  assignment  of  applicants  may 
be  regarded  as  the  basic  function  of  a  service  department. 
Public  interest  in  the  vocational  guidance  movement  has  in- 


EMPLOYMENT   MANAGEMENT 


127 


tensified  the  demand  for  better  qualified  persons  to  undertake 
this  difficult  task.  The  interviewers  ought  to  be  experienced 
men  and  women,  persons  of  maturity,  thoroughly  familiar 


S 


la 


with  the  work  in  every  department,  and  keen  judges  of  human 
nature.  If  their  advice  is  wisely  given  they  become  the  "voca- 
tional counselors  for  industry."  The  real  work  of  the  service 
department  begins,  however,  with  the  phase  of  occupational 


128 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 


EMPLOYMENT   MANAGEMENT 

adjustment  and  training,  a  field  about  which  too  little  of 
practical  worth  is  known,  but  in  which  service  of  the  highest 
value  can  be  rendered.  It  is  our  present  purpose  to  define  the 
scope  of  the  training  and  adjustment  functions  and  to  show 
how  they  are  related  to  other  employment  management 
activities. 

Training  the  Employee 

Figure  39  includes  an  outline  of  the  educational  and  train- 
ing work  which  may  come  under  the  control  of  a  service 
manager.  Certain  of  the  activities  listed  are  capable  of  sharp 
separation  as  belonging  to  a  group  of  "training"  functions 
designed  to  increase  efficiency  directly  through  imparting  ap- 
plied technical  knowledge,  skill,  or  dexterity.  In  this  category 
belong  supervision  of  apprentices,  the  vestibule  school,  short- 
unit  training  courses  for  special  groups,  and  the  work  done 
by  shop  instructors. 

Another  group  of  instruction  plans,  represented  in  this 
chart  under  the  heading  of  "General  Education,"  is  intended 
to  increase  the  employee's  general  efficiency,  improve  his  quali- 
fications as  a  citizen,  and  add  to  the  satisfaction  or  enjoyment 
which  he  takes  in  his  work.  They  call  for  the  co-operation 
of  other  divisions  of  the  employment  department  and  of 
agencies  outside  of  the  plant.  Some  instruction  in  personal 
hygiene,  for  example,  is  given  by  the  public  schools,  but  in 
the  factory  it  takes  on  specialized  forms  because  of  peculiar 
occupational  hazards.  Furthermore,  fresh  developments  in 
physiology  and  medicine  as  well  as  the  manifest  inability  of 
the  child  to  acquire  and  assimilate  all  of  the  knowledge  neces- 
sary to  the  health  adjustments  of  later  years,  make  community 
and  plant  health  campaigns  of  vital  importance.  Here  the 
director  of  industrial  training  will  need  the  assistance  of  the 
nurses  and  physicians  in  his  factory  and  will  naturally  co- 
operate with  the  local  public  health  officers. 


130 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


All  of  the  labor  maintenance  functions  suggested  under 
"Health  and  Safety"  and  "Co-operative  and  Service  Activi- 
ties" have  certain  mechanical^  or  technical  aspects.  The  in- 
stallation of  safety  devices,  the  management  of  a  cafeteria 


SUPPLY. 

I  L ._ 


FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  EMPLOYMENT  DEPARTMENT. 

AND OCCUPATIONAL  ADJUSTMENTS.  tABOR  MAINTENANCE 


RECORDS  AND  RESEARCH. 


4.    tHVt'STi6AT/QH 

fSTAHDAttOIZATIOH  Of  OCCt/PAffOHS . 
GRADING  JOBS  AND  ECUAUZA  T/OM  Of  WA6E*. 
ft  JOB  $P£CiFlCATSO.ifORff£QUlS]nOHS  ANQ 


Figure  39.     Chart  Showing  Functions  of  Employment  Department 
Used  by  courtesy  of  Industrial  Management. 

or  a  gymnasium,  or  the  equipment  and  maintenance  of  a 
dental  clinic,  may  be  viewed  entirely  as  work  dealing  with 
mechanisms  provided  for  the  improvement  of  safety  or  health. 
On  the  other  hand,  each  of  these  matters  presents  an  educa- 
tional phase  as  well.  Safety  prevention  is  largely  a  matter 


EMPLOYMENT  MANAGEMENT  I31 

of  training  and  propaganda,  while  an  effective  use  of 
gymnasium,  cafeteria,  or  clinic  depends  upon  instruction  in 
personal  hygiene. 

Making  Adjustments 

There  are  two  border-line  groups  of  functions  lying  be- 
tween training  and  the  recruiting  of  labor.  The  life  histories 
of  minor  executives  as  well  as  of  the  more  important  indus- 
trial leaders  are  usually  dotted  with  a  succession  of  occupa- 
tional adjustments — transfers  from  job  to  job  or  from  plant 
to  plant,  promotions,  discipline  cases,  and  even  discharge.  Two 
objects  should  be  attained  in  making  these  adjustments:  jus- 
tice to  the  individual,  and  economy  in  production.  Both  are 
dependent  upon  rating  records,  which  indicate  the  need  for 
readjustment,  and  upon  training,  which  either  makes  the 
worker  efficient  in  his  present  position  or  fits  him  for  a  new 
one.  For  whichever  of  the  two  purposes  training  is  employed, 
connection  must  be  maintained  with  the  recruiting  functions 
which  assist  in  keeping  the  labor  supply  at  the  level  demanded 
by  production  plans. 

Training  is  also  closely  connected  with  labor  supply  in 
developing  the  resources  within  the  plant  and  the  means  of 
utilizing  them.  Particularly  is  this  true  of  the  sources  and 
channels  of  supply  for  executive  or  clerical  positions  and 
highly  skilled  trades. 

"Group  Relations" 

Another  series  of  border-line  functions  appear  under 
"Group  Relations."  A  capable  director  of  industrial  training 
will  interest  himself  and  his  staff  in  the  educational  aspects 
of  shop  order,  teamwork,  absenteeism  and  tardiness,  and  the 
work  of  shop  committees.  While  these  matters,  so  far  as  their 
routine  regulation  is  concerned,  naturally  come  under  the  em- 
ployment or  service  manager,  they  all  present  problems  which 


132  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

yield  to  treatment  from  the  angle  of  direct  instruction,  the 
diffusion  of  information,  or  educational  research. 

It  may  be  necessary  under"*  certain  conditions  to  keep  in- 
dustrial training  separate  from  other  matters  which  properly 
belong  under  the  control  of  the  service  manager.  Theoretically, 
it  seems  to  be  a  proper  part  of  the  work  of  his  department. 
From  the  time  that  the  employee  enters  the  company  he  is 
then  under  the  supervision  of  a  single  department.  By  keeping 
all  of  his  records  in  one  place,  or  under  the  surveillance  of 
one  authority,  those  who  are  made  responsible  for  his  progress 
are  better  able  to  keep  in  touch  with  his  needs,  they  are  in 
a  better  position  to  rate  him  or  to  promote  him,  and  are  the 
better  judges  of  the  justice  of  any  complaint  which  is  made 
against  his  character  or  efficiency. 

Relation  of  Service  Manager  and  Director  of  Training 

In  some  plants  the  employment  manager 'in  charge  of  the 
functions  listed  on  the  chart  under  "Labor  Supply"  and 
"Labor  Maintenance/'  is  placed  on  an  equal  basis  with  the 
director  of  training  and  both  report  to  a  vice-president  in 
charge  of  industrial  relations.  Another  plan,  which  has  about 
equal  advantages,  is  to  place  all  employment  and  training 
activities  under  one  responsible  head  reporting  direct  to  the 
general  manager.  In  no  case  ought  the  training  and  occupa- 
tional adjustment  functions  to  be  controlled  by  a  separate  head 
reporting  to  a  production  superintendent.  They  are  much  too 
important  and  have  too  close  a  relation  to  other  employment 
functions  to  allow  them  thus  to  be  subjected  to  the  dangers 
of  overlapping  authority,  slow  action,  and  lack  of  enlightened 
guidance. 

It  is  equally  undesirable  to  have  the  administration  of 
training  under  an  employment  manager  who  is  unfitted  for 
the  task  either  by  temperament  or  because  of  the  lack  of 
educational  preparation.  Companies  frequently  begin  to 


EMPLOYMENT  MANAGEMENT  133 

organize  employment  activities  by  placing  someone  in  charge 
of  recruiting  labor.  As  the  work  grows  and  a  director  of 
education,  an  industrial  physician,  a  safety  engineer,  and  other 
staff  experts  are  added,  it  may  become  evident  that  the  man 
first  engaged  as  employment  manager  is  not  capable  of  direct- 
ing the  enlarged  undertaking.  The  usual  alternatives  which 
then  present  themselves  are  to  have  the  new  executives  report 
to  the  general  manager,  or  to  engage  a  supervisor  of  indus- 
trial relations.  In  some  cases  it  happens  that  the  plant 
physician  or  director  of  training  is  himself  selected  as  head 
of  employee  relations. 

Value  of  Trained  Staff  Executives 

The  fact  that  a  firm  has  placed  the  supervision  of  employ- 
ment or  industrial  relations  in  the  hands  of  a  functionalized 
department  gives  some  assurance  that  children  who  seek  posi- 
tions will  be  given  work  suited  to  their  abilities  and  that  a 
systematic  effort  will  be  made  to  co-operate  with  all  helpful 
agencies  in  training  them,  preparing  them  for  advancement, 
and  protecting  their  best  interests.  No  large  establishment 
can  hope  to  promote  educational  activities  either  within  or 
outside  of  the  plant  unless  it  has  the  services  of  trained  staff 
executives. 

Education  and  training  fall  naturally  into  the  personnel 
relations  group  of  functions.  The  executive  in  charge  should 
be  under  an  employment  or  service  manager  with  extensive 
powers  or  a  vice-president  controlling  labor  policies.  Although 
the  employment  management  movement  is  of  recent  origin, 
it  has  already  demonstrated  the  possibility  of  fundamental 
transformations  in  labor  policies  and  working  conditions. 
Much  of  the  future  success  of  the  movement  depends  upon 
the  ability  of  employment  managers  clearly  to  define  and  solve 
their  training  problems. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  NEW  APPRENTICESHIP 

Stimulus  of  War 

Three  years  of  abnormal  labor  conditions  during  the  war 
greatly  hastened  the  evolution  of  apprenticeship  which  had 
been  taking  place  slowly  in  the  United  States  for  ten  years 
previous  to  1915.  Industrial  plants  under  war-emergency 
pressure  devised  intensive  training  plans  which  for  the  time 
being  almost  entirely  superseded  the  older  methods. 

The  greatest  demand  was  for  semiskilled  mechanics  who 
could  operate  one  machine  or  perform  a  few  simple  operations 
that  could  be  taught  in  a  few  days  or  a  few  weeks  at  most. 
High  rates  of  pay  and  the  response  to  the  nation's  need  at- 
tracted those  who  were  just  entering  upon  their  terms  of 
apprenticeship  as  well  as  those  who  would  never  have  gone 
into  the  shops  to  learn  a  trade  in  ordinary  times.  Manufac- 
turing plants  producing  staple  articles  which  were  not  greatly 
increased  in  price,  and  railroad  shops  where  the  income  was 
almost  stationary,  were  unable  to  secure  new  apprentices  at 
reasonable  rates  or  to  hold  young  men  already  in  their  employ 
to  long-term  indentures.  This  situation,  coupled  with  the 
withdrawal  of  many  apprentices  for  military  service,  demoral- 
ized the  only  means  in  use  in  many  shops  for  training  new 
employees  or  recruiting  the  executive  ranks.  The  intensive 
training  methods  to  which  recourse  was  made  constituted  in 
a  way  a  rough-and-ready  form  of  apprenticeship. 

It  should  be  stated  that  intensive  training  for  single  opera- 
tions, although  successful  as  a  war  measure,  is  satisfactory 
in  peace  times  neither  to  employers  nor  to  workmen.  It  is 

134 


THE    NEW   APPRENTICESHIP  J35 

useful  only  in  highly  specialized  factory  departments,  and  is 
not  adapted  to  work  demanding  a  high  grade  of  skill  and 
technical  knowledge,  nor  to  the  majority  of  trades  where  the 
skilled  mechanic  must  be  familiar  with  a  variety  of  materials, 
tools,  machines,  and  processes.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  so  many  objections  to  the  older  forms  of  apprenticeship 
that  it  is  unlikely  that  they  can  long  persist  without  some 
thorough  reconstruction. 

The  New  Apprenticeship — Aim  and  Scope 

The  extent  of  the  modifications  attempted  before  the  war 
may  be  judged  by  the  fact  that  from  1905  to  1912  twenty-two 
different  railroad  systems  in  the  United  States  established 
apprentice  schools  for  their  shops  or  motive  power  depart- 
ments. By  1916,  several  of  these  roads  were  ready  to  in- 
troduce special  training  for  section  hands,  for  laborers,  helpers, 
and  handy  men  in  the  shops,  and  for  office  employees,  but 
because  of  unsettled  labor  conditions  little  was  accomplished 
except  in  training  for  clerical  positions.  A  similar  develop- 
ment took  place  during  the  same  period  among  printing  estab- 
lishments, large  machine-shops,  locomotive  works,  and  manu- 
facturers of  electrical  supplies.  The  aim  in  all  of  these  schools 
was  to  improve  the  character  of  the  practical  experience  gained 
during  the  term  of  apprenticeship,  at  the  same  time  giving 
instruction  in  related  technical  subjects.  Shopwork  was  more 
carefully  scheduled  and  supervised  to  the  end  that  each  learner 
might  have  opportunity  to  spend  some  time  in  each  of  the 
important  divisions  of  the  trade.  In  some  cases,  special  ap- 
prentice shops  were  built  where  the  students  were  employed  on 
productive  work,  and  in  others  the  apprentices  were  partly 
or  wholly  under  the  guidance  of  instructors  while  employed  in 
the  plant.  The  system  was  changed  from  one  in  which  the 
apprentice  was  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  the  foremen,  often 
gaining  experience  in  only  a  small  section  of  the  trade  and 


136 


TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


receiving  no  theoretical  instruction,  to  one  which  offered  a 
well-rounded  trade  experience  combined  with  enough  technical 
instruction  to  produce  ,an  intejligent  craftsman  worthy  of 
promotion  and  consequent  increase  in  wages. 

Retention  of  Older  Forms  t 

It  ought  not  by  any  means  to  be  supposed,  however,  that 
the  older  forms  of  apprenticeship  had  been  entirely  discarded. 
Nearly  all  of  the  mechanical  trades  and  the  majority  of  skilled 
factory  occupations  were  still  being  entered  by  an  apprentice- 
ship of  from  three  to  five  years  with  no  technical  instruction 
available  outside  of  that  offered  by  public  or  private  schools 
in  evening  classes. 

The  United  States  census  for  1910  gives  the  following 
figures  for  apprentices  in  manufacturing  and  mechanical  in- 
dustries. The  census  of  1920  undoubtedly  shows  many 
changes  because  of  the  altered  industrial  conditions. 


Male 

Female 

Total 

Apprentices  to   building  and  hand 
trades       .       .  .  '.  

27,000 

32 

28,031 

Dressmakers'  and  milliners'  appren- 
tices                      

-ii 

1  1,  080 

I2,OII 

Other  apprentices 

7  ^,330 

•3,^8^ 

78,022 

Total     

103,369 

It;  coir 

118,964 

Figure   40.     Statistics   of   Apprentices   in   Manufacturing   and    Mechanical 

Industries  (1910) 

Figure  41  gives  the  number  of  apprentices  in  several  cities 
with  a  population  of  100,000  or  over,  showing  for  each  city 
the  number  of  apprentices  in  comparison  with  the  number  of 
wage-earners  in  the  manufacturing  and  mechanical  indus- 
tries. 


THE    NEW   APPRENTICESHIP 


137 


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138  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

Disadvantages  to  Apprentice 

During  the  past  two  decades  apprenticeship  has  been  more 
advantageous  to  the  employer  tkan  to  the  learner.  Wages 
were  small  in  comparison  with  those  paid  journeymen  or 
helpers  on  the  same  grade  of  work,  and  the  term  of  indenture 
was  usually  long  enough  to  insure  a  fair  return  from  the 
boy  during  the  last  year  of  his  service.  In  large  factories 
engaged  mainly  on  monotonous  repetitive  processes,  there  was 
a  tendency  to  regard  the  training  of  apprentices  as  a  needless 
waste  of  time,  and  in  some  cases  smaller  shops  employing 
skilled  craftsmen  preferred  to  promote  laborers  and  helpers, 
but  in  the  majority  of  industries  apprenticeship  was  considered 
an  economical  way  to  recruit  the  ranks  of  foremen,  executives, 
and  skilled  workmen.  Especially  was  this  true  among  manu- 
facturing machinists,  coppersmiths,  jewelers,  silversmiths,  and 
the  building  trades. 

i.  Retardation.  From  the  point  of  view  of  (the  apprentice, 
however,  there  were  many  drawbacks  to  this  method  of  enter- 
ing the  ranks  of  skilled  workmen.  All  too  frequently  appren- 
tices were  exploited  by  being  kept  for  a  year  or  more  on 
elementary  operations  such  as  running  errands,  sweeping, 
filing,  and  doing  simple  benchwork.  Shops  where  the  sub- 
division of  processes  had  been  carried  to  the  extreme  were 
naturally  the  ones  most  likely  to  consider  it  profitable  to  retard 
the  boy's  progress.  This  meant  that  the  apprentice  was  ex- 
pected to  do  the  work  of  a  journeyman  or  helper  at  a  reduced 
rate  of  pay  without  any  increased  opportunity  for  learning 
the  various  aspects  of  the  trade.  The  term  of  apprenticeship 
was  often  much  longer  than  the  exactions  of  the  work  to  be 
learned  really  necessitated.  As  a  result  the  apprentice  fell  into 
an  unworkman-like  attitude  toward  his  task,  loitering  instead 
of  putting  forth  the  full  amount  of  his  energy,  and  was  in 
danger  of  developing  an  embittered  attitude  of  mind  toward 
his  employer. 


THE   NEW   APPRENTICESHIP  139 

2.  Unskilled  Instructors.  Apprenticeship  is  open  to  the 
same  objections  as  may  be  leveled  at  any  form  of  training 
which  looks  to  skilled  workmen  and  foremen  to  furnish  all 
of  the  instruction.  Often  unqualified  by  temperament  and 
experience  as  teachers,  jealous  of  the  time  spent  in  helping 
beginners,  and  inclined,  very  likely,  to  regard  the  apprentice 
as  an  interloper  who  is  apt  to  be  promoted  to  a  position  higher 
than  any  to  which  they  can  aspire,  it  is  only  natural  that  their 
teaching  should  be  quite  ineffective. 

The  arguments  against  the  foreman  as  an  instructor  have 
been  well  stated  by  H.  L.  Gantt  in  his  "Work,  Wages,  and 
Profits." 

The  ordinary  foreman  of  the  shop  must  not  be  called 
upon  to  do  the  work  of  the  expert.  His  business  under  the 
usual  conditions  of  management  is  that  of  an  executive,  and 
he  is  invariably  so  busy  attending  to  his  routine  duties  that 
he  has  but  little  time  to  make  investigations  into  the  best 
method  of  doing  work.  He  can  only  give  instructions  ac- 
cording to  the  experience  he  has  had  in  the  past,  or  accord- 
ing to  the  knowledge  he  may  pick  up  at  odd  times.  Again, 
he  frequently  feels  compelled  to  allow  work  to  be  done  in- 
efficiently because  he  has  no  man  that  can  do  it  better,  and 
no  time  to  train  a  new  man.  For  these  reasons  it  is  desirable 
that  the  development  of  improved  methods,  the  setting  of 
tasks  in  accordance  with  these  methods,  and  the  training  of 
workmen  to  perform  these  tasks,  should  be  in  the  hands  of 
someone  other  than  the  foreman. 

3.  Loss  of  Opportunity.  The  changed  relations  which 
exist  between  the  employer  and  employee  in  progressive  estab- 
lishments gives  rise  to  another  objection  to  the  apprenticeship 
practiced  a  century  ago.  Young  men  are  loath  to  sign  an 
agreement  which  makes  them  appear  to  be  in  the  position  of 
being  bound  to  a  particular  firm  or  of  serving  a  "master." 
The  impression  is  wide-spread  that  a  trade  can  be  entered 
much  more  advantageously  by  stealing  it,  and  that  the  young 


140  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

man  makes  a  mistake  to  indenture  himself  for  a  long  period 
of  service  when  other  more  attractive  positions  are  likely  to 
open  to  him  at  any  time.  The^  excessive  labor  turnover  of 
the  war  period,  the  example  of  highly  paid  operatives  taught 
in  a  few  weeks  to  perform  skilled  operations  in  vestibule 
schools,  and  the  constant  demand  for  workers  on,  the  part  of 
newly  established  industries  willing  to  pay  high  wages  for 
semiskilled  artisans,  have  all  had  their  part  in  decreasing  the 
number  who  are  willing  to  undertake  a  long-term  apprentice- 
ship. 

Efforts  at  Improvement 

Three  measures  for  improving  apprenticeship  under 
present-day  conditions  have  been  on  trial :  trade  union  control 
through  collective  bargaining  agreements,  state  supervision, 
and  the  establishment  of  corporation  apprentice  schools.  Con- 
tinuation schools,  and  evening  classes  maintained  by  public 
and  private  institutions  have  given  assistance  to  apprentices 
in  a  limited  number  of  trades,  but  have  had  but  little  effect 
upon  apprenticeship  as  a  whole. 

Trade  Union  Control 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the  trade  unions 
began  nearly  sixty  years  ago  to  demand  better  regulation  of 
apprenticeship.  Collective  bargaining  agreements  for  this 
purpose  are  now  being  improved  and  extended  in  scope.  Ap- 
pendix J  on  page  387  contains  several  samples  of  such 
apprenticeship  regulations.  A  reduction  in  the  number  of 
years  required  to  complete  the  term  of  apprenticeship  as  well 
as  special  allowances  for  previous  experience  and  training  are 
the  outstanding  tendencies  in  many  trades.  In  very  few  cases 
have  the  unions  been  able  to  set  up  schools  of  their  own 
or  to  provide  means  for  examining  apprentices.  The  plan 
under  which  the  painters,  decorators,  and  paperhangers  of 


THE   NEW  APPRENTICESHIP 

Springfield,  Massachusetts,  provide  an  examining  board  com- 
posed of  equal  numbers  from  the  local  union  and  employers 
is  a  noteworthy  exception.  (See  page  391.) 

State  Supervision 

State  control  of  apprenticeship  was  practiced  in  early 
colonial  times.  The  tenth  special  report  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Labor  for  1904  gives  a  digest  of  apprentice 
laws,  the  majority  of  which  refer  to  the  age  at  which  children 
may  be  bound,  the  obligations  of  the  master  to  provide  suit- 
able schooling,  and  the  practice  of  apprenticing  minors  without 
their  consent  or  the  consent  of  parents  or  guardians.  Prac- 
tically every  state  in  the  union  has  general  enactments  of  this 
character  among  its  statutes,  but  only  one  state,  Wisconsin, 
has  endeavored  to  set  up  a  special  organization  for  supervising 
and  training  apprentices.  No  federal  legislation  exists  on  the 
subject  except  an  act  of  January  12,  1905,  which  authorizes 
the  public  printer  to  employ  apprentices  not  to  exceed  twenty- 
five  at  any  time  when  in  his  judgment  they  are  necessary  to 
the  economical  management  of  his  office. 

Wisconsin — A  Comprehensive  Plan 

A  Wisconsin  law  passed  in  1915  provides  machinery  de- 
signed to  control  apprenticeship  throughout  the  state.  The 
law  had  its  inception  in  the  efforts  made  by  Milwaukee  manu- 
facturers, particularly  in  the  metal  trades  and  in  the  foundry 
business,  to  establish  private  apprenticeship  systems.  These 
men  realized  after  experimenting  for  some  years  that  no 
apprentice  system  could  be  successful  under  modern  condi- 
tions unless  training  was  quite  generally  undertaken.  Their 
main  difficulty  was  the  willingness  of  a  few  employers  to 
follow  the  parasitical  practice  of  obtaining  skilled  help  from 
others  who  were  investing  in  educational  work.  Furthermore, 
constant  friction  arose  between  manufacturers  and  members 


142  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

of  the  trade  unions.  The  union  resented  the  dictation  of 
employers  in  matters  of  apprenticeship  and  held  to  the  belief 
that  apprentices  were  never  able  to  make  a  fair  bargain  with 
the  management.  The  advocacy  of  state  supervision  of  ap- 
prenticeship came  about  as  a  logical  result  of  the  anxiety 
of  all  parties  concerned  to  secure  better  conditions  and  their 
inability  to  put  any  adequate  machinery  of  control  into 
operation. 

The  first  act,  passed  in  1911,  proved  too  exacting  in  its 
demands  and  was  superseded  by  the  Wisconsin  Apprenticeship 
Law  of  1915.  Under  this  law  the  State  Industrial  Commis- 
sion is  given  power  to  classify  trades  and  industries,  supervise 
apprentice  contracts,  and  mediate  differences  between  appren- 
tices and  their  employers.  The  commission  has  established  a 
state  apprentice  committee  composed  of  employers  who  serve 
as  an  advisory  board  without  pay,  and  a  supervisor  of  ap- 
prenticeship who  is  the  executive  officer  empowered  to  carry 
on  the  work  throughout  the  state. 

Classification  of  Trades 

The  commission  endeavors  to  classify  trades  in  such  a  way 
as  to  determine  to  what  extent  various  occupations  are  suitable 
for  training  under  the  apprenticeship  system.  Indenture  forms 
are  drawn  up  which  conform  to  the  statute  and  suit  the  needs 
of  various  trades.  Every  apprenticeship  contract  is  reviewed 
to  make  sure  that  it  conforms  to  the  requirements  of  the  law 
and  that  it  is  equitable  to  both  employer  and  apprentice. 

New  Features 

The  features  of  the  work  which  are  essentially  new  are 
the  supervision  of  apprentice  boys  in  the  shop,  and  the  joint 
maintenance  by  the  state  and  the  municipalities  of  day  voca- 
tional schools.  The  supervisor  or  one  of  his  agents  visits  each 


THE    NEW   APPRENTICESHIP  143 

boy  to  see  that  there  is  the  right  kind  of  opportunity  for 
experience  and  that  the  employer's  work  is  being  performed 
in  a  satisfactory  manner.  Difficulties  and  disputes  are  ad- 
justed as  they  occur  and  suggestions  are  made  for  improving 
the  schedule  of  shop  training  where  that  seems  necessary. 
Each  student  spends  half  a  day  a  week,  on  the  employer's  time, 
studying  safety,  hygiene,  economics,  principles  of  citizenship, 
and  technical  subjects  closely  related  to  the  trade  in  which  he 
is  employed.  Graduate  apprentices  receive  a  diploma  bearing 
the  seal  of  the  Industrial  Commission  and  countersigned  by 
the  employer.  A  diploma  is  granted  only  on  the  basis  of  a 
satisfactory  record  as  shown  by  the  reports  received  by  the 
commission  from  the  employer  and  the  school. 

Other  functions  of  the  commission  are  to  determine  trade 
standards  and  to  co-operate  with  the  State  Board  of  Voca- 
tional Education  in  preparing  courses  of  study  for  apprentices. 
A  monthly  sheet  called  The  Wisconsin  Apprentice  is  published 
to  create  interest  in  trade  topics  and  to  furnish  a  clearing  house 
of  information  for  employers,  apprentices,  cities,  and  state 
departments. 

Forum  meetings  and  lectures,  personal  conferences,  and 
the  dissemination  of  literature  throughout  the  state  are  utilized 
for  the  creation  of  public  opinion  favorable  to  apprenticeship. 
Employers  are  approached  and  an  endeavor  is  made  to  show 
that  apprenticeship  is  justified  on  an  economic  basis. 

Washington's  Minimum  Wage  Law 

The  state  of  Washington  enacted  a  minimum  wage  law 
for  women  in  1913  which  places  the  supervision  of  female 
apprentices  in  the  hands  of  a  board  of  five  members  known 
as  the  Industrial  Welfare  Commission.  Section  13  of  the 
minimum  wage  law  gives  the  commission  power  to  arrange 
schedules  for  learners  under  18  years  of  age  and  for  women 
having  physical  disabilities.  The  work  accomplished  by  the 


144  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

commission  under  this  provision  is  thus  described 'by  the  act- 
ing secretary,  Mrs.  W.  H.  Udall: 

/* 

This  work  demanded  personal  investigation  by  the  mem- 
bers in  all  occupations  before  the  adoption  of  a  comprehen- 
sive and  necessarily  intricate  system  of  apprenticeships,  and 
meant  much  clerical  work  in  the  office  in  administering  such 
a  system,  but  we  have  no  hesitancy  in  saying  that  when 
finally  adopted  it  has  had  a  successful  administration. 

To  obtain  the  information  upon  which  to  base  wage 
schedules  and  other  regulations,  the  books  of  the  firms  were 
inspected,  the  earnings  of  groups  of  girls  covering  their 
first  year  of  employment  were  carefully  compiled,  and  per- 
sonal interviews  with  the  girls  were  held.  A  schedule  was 
then  adopted  covering  the  situation  of  the  average  worker. 

In  any  occupation  such  as  chamber-work,  restaurant  and 
ice-cream  parlor  work  no  apprenticeship  is  considered  neces- 
sary. Garment-making,  printing,  salesmanship,  millinery, 
chocolate  dipping,  hair  manufacturing  and  similar  occupa- 
tions take  the  longest  periods. 

The  application  blank  must  be  filled  out  by  the  employee 
and  sent  to  our  office  the  same  day  she  begins  her  work, 
and  when  issued  the  license  is  dated  that  day;  any  time 
worked  without  a  license  is  subject  to  the  full  minimum 
wage.  The  license  is  in  duplicate  form ;  the  employee  is  sent 
the  original  and  the  employer  the  duplicate,  so  there  can  be 
no  misunderstanding  as  to  the  period  or  the  wage  to  be  paid. 

In  large  establishments  where  many  apprentices  are 
needed  a  monthly  report  is  required,  which  enables  this  office 
to  check  up  our  files  and  keep  the  firm  within  the  percentage 
allowed. 

Our  system  has  never  been  taken  into  the  courts,  and  we 
believe  that  it  has  been  a  great  benefit  to  the  women  of 
the  state. 

Mrs.  Udall  further  explains  that  licenses  are  very  infre- 
quently issued  in  case  of  physical  disability  of  the  applicant 
and  then  only  after  a  personal  investigation  by  some  member 
of  the  labor  department.  In  the  entire  state  not  more  than 


THE   NEW  APPRENTICESHIP  H5 

forty-five  persons  hold  licenses  under  such  conditions,  and 
these  have  been  granted  for  disabilities  such  as  old  age, 
rheumatism,  loss  of  one  finger,  and  partial  paralysis. 

Possible  Growth  of  State  Supervision 

The  fact  that  the  licensing  of  such  persons  as  plumbers, 
gasfitters,  motion  picture  operators,  aviators,  and  stationary, 
locomotive,  and  steamship  engineers  has  been  everywhere 
regarded  as  a  legitimate  function  of  the  state  government, 
points  the  way  to  the  extension  of  the  Wisconsin  and  Wash- 
ington plans  to  the  supervision  and  training  of  learners  in 
many  trades.  It  has  been  easier,  perhaps,  to  control  the  work 
in  connection  with  trades  where  apprenticeship  was  fairly 
well  established  and  where  the  state  could  look  to  union  labor 
organizations  and  employers  to  assist  in  maintaining  high 
standards.  Is  it  not  reasonable  to  suppose,  however,  that  the 
state's  power  of  granting  a  license  may  well  furnish  the  open- 
ing wedge  for  beginning  instruction  and  supervision  of  a  like 
kind  in  other  trades? 

Corporation  Schools 

Beginning  with  the  work  inaugurated  by  several  railroad 
companies  about  1890,  a  number  of  corporations  have  installed 
schools  in  which  part  of  the  time  of  each  apprentice  is  devoted 
to  related  academic  and  technical  subjects,  and  in  which  the 
shopwork  is  so  scheduled  and  supervised  as  to  give  a  satis- 
factory experience  in  the  practice  of  the  trade. 

Grand  Trunk  Railroad  a  Pioneer 

Among  the  railroads,  the  Grand  Trunk  system,  with  head- 
quarters at  Montreal,  was  a  pioneer  in  establishing  apprentice 
schools.  About  1899  it  was  decided  to  start  a  drawing  class 
for  apprentices,  in  the  hope  of  attracting  better  educated  boys 


TRAINING  INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

into  the  service  ana  to  provide  more  adequate  opportunities 
for  them  to  develop  into  skilled  and  intelligent  mechanics. 
For  some  years  previous  to  this  time  groups  of  apprentices 
and  others  in  the  employ  of  the  Grand  Trunk  who  wished 
to  improve  themselves  in  mechanical  drawing  or  other  tech- 
nical subjects  had  been  in  the  custom  of  hiring  teachers,  each 
student  contributing  a  small  amount  per  month  for  instruction. 
As  a  rule  such  classes  had  not  been  well  attended  and  the 
company  felt  that  something  should  be  attempted  which  would 
be  more  definitely  under  its  own  control  and  subject  to  higher 
instructional  standards. 

In  beginning  the  work  in  1899,  all  apprentices  were  placed 
in  one  class  irrespective  of  age  or  ability.  The  next  year 
classes  were  graded  and  special  evenings  were  set  apart  for 
instruction  in  practical  shop  methods.  In  1901  a  system  of 
examinations  was  instituted  to  determine  promotion  from  one 
portion  of  the  shop  or  from  one  machine  to  the  other,  as  well 
as  an  advance  in  pay.  A  small  text-book  was  compiled  for 
home  study,  and  examinations  were  given  at  the  end  of  the 
year  based  on  the  shopwork  each  apprentice  had  accomplished 
and  including  certain  theoretical  questions  and  a  test  in 
mechanical  drawing.  About  1904  the  system  was  extended 
over  the  entire  motive  power  department  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
System,  and  from  that  time  on  was  handled  by  the  company 
according  to  the  rules  approved  by  the  superintendent. 

During  the  next  two  years  practical  mechanics  was  made 
a  part  of  the  course  and  compulsory  attendance  upon  all  classes 
was  written  into  the  indenture.  The  subjects  taught  were 
added  to  from  time  to  time  until  they  now  comprise  a  large 
range  of  topics,  graded  to  suit  the  student's  ability,  from 
simple  arithmetic  to  higher  mathematics,  mechanics,  machine 
design,  and  mechanical  drawing.  Instruction  is  given  during 
the  fall  and  winter  months  for  two  evenings  each  week.  The 
examination  system  is  retained  as  an  essential  part  of  the 


THE    NEW   APPRENTICESHIP  147 

program,  but  has  been  supplemented  by  a  system  of  competi- 
tions and  prizes.  The  period  of  apprenticeship  is  five  years, 
the  rates  of  pay  increasing  from  8  cents  per  hour  the  first 
year  to  17  cents  the  fifth  year.  A  bonus  of  $25  is  paid  for 
the  successful  completion  of  the  course.  The  company  also 
pays  for  all  books  and  materials  used  in  the  evening  classes 
except  mechanical  drawing  instruments. 

American  Locomotive  Company — Preliminary  Requirements 

The  American  Locomotive  Company  of  Schenectady,  New 
York,  offers  apprenticeship  courses  in  drafting,  shop  practice, 
pattern-making,  molding,  electrical  construction,  printing,  and 
tool-making.  Applicants  for  the  course  in  drafting  are  ex- 
pected to  be  between  16  and  19  years  of  age  and  must  pass 
a  special  examination  intended  to  test  general  mental  capacity 
rather  than  actual  attainment  in  scholarship.  Boys  who  have 
completed  one  year  of  high  school  and  at  least  one  term  of 
algebra  have  the  requisite  amount  of  academic  schooling  to 
be  admitted  to  the  test.  The  following  outline  suggests  the 
nature  of  the  examination: 

1.  Test  of  ability  to  express  ideas:    Letter  of  application 

stating  why  applicant  wishes  to  take  the  course. 

2.  Test  in  sense  of  proportion  and  detail:     Sketching  of 

some  object  in  the  room  involving  simple  propor- 
tions. 

3.  Test  to  determine  whether  applicant  is  mechanically 

minded  along  practical  lines:     Description  of  some- 
thing that  applicant  has  made. 

4.  General  knowledge  of  principles  involved  in  obtaining 

mechanical    power:      Simple    description    of    how 
power  is  obtained  for  a  locomotive  or  an  automobile. 

5.  Test  in  ability  to  reason  as  related  to  locomotive  prob- 

lems:    Working  out  problems  of  how  two  trains 


148  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

are  to  pass  one  another  on  a  single  track  with  limited 
siding  facilities. 
6.  Problems  in  algebra. 

Drafting  Course 

The  drafting  course  is  planned  to  cover  four  years.  Of 
the  forty-four  working  hours  in  each  week,  three  are  spent 
in  the  schoolroom.  The  text-book  work  covers  machine  de- 
sign based  upon  actual  practice  in  designing  locomotives  and 
certain  related  mathematical  problems.  The  problems  are 
estimated  to  require  about  eight  hours  of  study  outside  of 
the  time  spent  in  the  schoolroom.  No  regular  classes  are 
held,  but  instead  each  apprentice  receives  individual  instruc- 
tion during  the  class  hour.  It  frequently  happens  that  appren- 
tices who  do  good  work  are  able  to  complete  the  course  in 
considerably  less  than  four  years.  Apprentices  who  obtain  a 
rating  of  B  grade  receive  two  cents  more  per  hour  than  the 
base  rate,  while  those  who  obtain  an  A  rate  receive  a  bonus 
of  three  cents  per  hour.  The  base  rate  is  advanced  upon 
completion  of  each  six  months'  assignment  of  problems  and 
is  independent  of  the  time  spent  in  the  course.  Credit  may 
also  be  given  for  overtime  and  occasionally  for  previous  ex- 
perience. The  students  are  encouraged  to  study  during  the 
evening  in  the  general  drawing-room  or  in  the  drafting-room, 
where  access  may  be  had  to  the  company  standards  which  are 
referred  to  in  the  text.  One  hour  is  spent  each  month  in 
visits  to  the  shops,  taking  notes  which  are  discussed  during 
the  following  class  period. 

Shop  Apprentice  Course 

Applicants  for  the  shop  apprentice  course  at  the  Schenec- 
tady  plant  are  not  required  to  pass  the  preliminary  examina- 
tion but  at  least  one  year's  high  school  education  is  considered 
desirable,  and  only  boys  between  the  ages  of  16  and  19  are 


THE  NEW  APPRENTICESHIP  H9 

accepted.  Fifty  hours  constitute  a  working  week,  of  which 
one  and  one-half  hours  are  spent  in  classroom  exercises.  One- 
half  hour  of  this  time  is  at  the  apprentice's  expense;  the  other 
hour  is  on  the  company's  time.  Instruction  is  offered  in  shop 
mathematics,  blue-print  reading,  and  the  principles  of  shop 
practice.  Frequent  inspection  trips  to  the  shops  allow  the 
apprentice  to  learn  just  how  the  work  he  is  doing  is  used  in 
the  final  construction  of  locomotives,  while  transfer  of  students 
from  one  shop  to  another  is  so  planned  as  to  give  experience 
in  manipulating  all  of  the  essential  types  of  machines.  No 
cash  bonus  is  paid  at  the  completion  of  the  course,  although 
each  apprentice  receives  a  certificate  and  is  given  an  increase 
in  pay  with  such  opportunity  for  further  advancement  as  his 
ability  warrants. 

The  courses  in  pattern-making,  molding  and  core-making, 
electrical  work  and  printing,  follow  the  same  general  lines  as 
the  course  in  shop  practice  except  that  there  is  no  classroom 
work  for  apprentices  in  the  foundry,  and  the  printing  and 
electrical  courses  require  three  hours  and  one  hour  a  week 
respectively  for  class  instruction. 

For  outlines  of  other  apprentice  courses,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Appendices  B  to  D,  inclusive. 

National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools — Recommenda- 
tions 

The  railroad  section  of  the  Committee  on  Trade  Appren- 
ticeship of  the  National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools 
made  several  excellent  recommendations  regarding  the  general 
qualifications  of  apprentices  and  their  training  in  their  sixth 
annual  report  prepared  in  1918.  In  the  opinion  of  the  com- 
mittee, apprentices  should  not  be  employed  in  railroad-shops 
under  16  years  of  age  nor  over  21  years  of  age,  excepting 
freight-car  carpenter  apprentices  and  college  or  technical 
school  graduates  pursuing  special  courses.  A  medical  ex- 


150  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

amination  similar  to  that  required  oy  life  insurance  companies 
is  proposed  as  an  entrance  requirement,  but  no  educational 
qualifications  are  insisted  uporu  The  committee  recommends 
that  in  all  railroad-shops  employing  twelve  or  more  appren- 
tices a  regular  school  be  maintained  in  which  instruction  can 
be  given  in  mechanical  and  free-hand  drawing,  reading  and 
interpretation  of  blue-prints,  shop  mathematics,  the  simple 
elements  of  mechanics,  and  such  other  subjects  as  bear  directly 
upon  the  student's  trade.  School  instruction  should  occupy 
at  least  four  hours  a  week,  given  in  two  periods  of  two  hours 
each.  Shops  employing  twenty  or  more  apprentices  are  urged 
to  employ  a  regular  shop  instructor  and  it  is  suggested  that 
smaller  shops  may  employ  a  joint  instructor  to  handle  both 
technical  subjects  and  shop  practice.  During  the  first  six 
months'  period  of  apprenticeship  a  considerable  variety  of 
work  should  be  undertaken  so  that  the  apprentice  may  be 
helped  in  deciding  upon  the  kind  of  work  which  he  is  best 
fitted  to  undertake.  This  probationary  period  also  serves  the 
purpose  of  weeding  out  those  who  are  unfitted  for  advanced 
work,  either  in  the  shop  or  in  the  school. 

The  committee's  report  contains  detailed  outlines  of  the 
shopwork  which  should  be  undertaken  by  apprentices  in  each 
of  the  trades  represented  in  railroad  shops.  For  example, 
electricians  are  to  have  their  shop  experience  diversified  as 
follows: 

1.  Helping    electricians    around    a    railroad    shop — six 

months. 

2.  Car  wiring  and  wiring  repairs — twelve  months. 

3.  Wiring  buildings  and  other  wiring — twelve  months. 

4.  With    electrician    on    axle    lighting    equipment — six 

months. 

5.  Electromotive  wiring — six  months. 

6.  With  an  electrician  on  motor  repairing  and  installa- 

tion— six  months. 


THE   NEW  APPRENTICESHIP  15* 

The  Program  Criticized 

In  addition  to  the  recommendations  made  by  this  com- 
mittee, all  of  which  appear  to  be  sound  and  capable  of  being 
applied  to  the  work  of  corporation  apprentice  schools  of  all 
kinds,  certain  criticisms  which  appear  to  be  valid  are  made 
by  investigators  and  instructors  upon  the  work  now  being  done. 

The  text-book  material  is  poorly  developed.  Particularly 
noticeable  is  the  lack  of  good  problem  material,  illustrative 
exercises,  and  sound  exposition  of  principles.  Courses  which 
are  intended  to  prepare  for  executive  positions  neglect  the 
management  side,  and  where  it  is  given  almost  no  problems 
are  presented.  The  student  too  often  gets  his  lessons  by 
memorizing  and  through  lectures — exactly  the  features  which 
business  men  have  long  criticized  in  academic  institutions. 

Good  teaching  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  To 
make  sure  of  getting  practical  work  done,  tradesmen  have 
been  employed  as  instructors  with  little  or  no  preliminary 
preparation  for  teaching  and  no  opportunities  for  professional 
improvement  in  service. 

In  some  schools,  production  has  been  held  to  be  of  more 
importance  than  learning,  with  the  result  that  apprentices  have 
been  kept  too  long  on  unimportant  work. 

More  significance  should  be  attached  to  grading  appren- 
tices according  to  ability  and  to  rating  their  work  so  that  more 
capable  students  can  make  rapid  progress  and  shorten  the 
period  of  apprenticeship. 

Co-operative  and  part-time  classes  should  receive  more 
attention  than  they  have  in  the  past.  The  plan  used  at  Beverly, 
Massachusetts,  for  training  apprentices  for  the  United  Shoe 
Machinery  Company  has  many  advantages  over  most  schools 
maintained  by  the  plant  alone. 

Probable  Future  Development 

Because  the  apprentice  under  "modern  complicated  cor- 


152  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

porate  conditions"  fails  to  learn  all  the  mystery  of  the  trade, 
and  finishes  his  term  without  any  appreciation  of  the  technical 
aspects  of  his  work  or  of  the  rjsal  problems  involved  in  indus- 
trial management,  some  method  should  be  devised  for  im- 
proving and  supplementing  his  shop  experience.  This  is  now 
being  accomplished  in  some  instances  by  corporation  schools 
or  by  part-time  and  evening  classes  in  outside  educational 
institutions.  These  means  of  supplementary  training  need  to 
be  more  widely  adopted.  General  regulations  regarding  ap- 
prenticeship appear  on  the  statute  books  of  all  states,  but  only 
two  have  enacted  laws  providing  for  state  supervision  and 
training  of  apprentices. 

The  trend  of  future  development  is  likely  to  be  toward 
extending  the  work  done  by  private  companies,  enlarging  the 
scope  of  state  supervision,  and  providing  supplementary  tech- 
nical instruction  in  public  schools. 


CHAPTER  X 

VESTIBULE   TRAINING   AND   IMPROVEMENT   IN 

SERVICE 

Value  of  Vestibule  Training 

The  principles  of  production  management  upon  which 
vestibule  training  rests  were  first  enunciated  by  the  leaders 
of  the  scientific  management  movement.  H.  L.  Gantt,  in  his 
'Work,  Wages,  and  Profits/'  Harrington  Emerson,  in  his 
"Twelve  Principles  of  Efficiency,"  and  F.  W.  Taylor,  in  all  of 
his  studies,  point  to  the  need  for  efficient  training  to  follow  up 
the  work  of  the  planning  department.  When  an  employee 
is  placed  at  new  work  without  any  preliminary  instruction,  he 
learns  the  faults  of  other  employees  who  teach  him,  he  learns 
slowly,  consumes  the  time  of  skilled  workmen  which  ought 
to  be  devoted  to  their  regular  tasks,  and  the  losses  from  scrap 
are  large. 

There  is  usually  only  one  best  way  in  which  an  opera- 
tion can  be  performed,  but  there  are  numberless  faulty 
methods  of  attempting  it.  In  nearly  every  case  the  new 
employee  is  neglected  and  because  he  learns  the  work  in  his 
own  way  he  soon  habitually  follows  a  wrong  method.  Al- 
though many  concerns  have  tried  to  overcome  the  losses 
incurred  through  faulty  methods  by  inaugurating  time  and 
motion  study,  and  by  utilizing  the  services  of  staff  experts, 
comparatively  few  have  yet  successfully  planned  for  getting 
new  standard  practice  promptly  incorporated  into  the  working 
habits  of  their  employees.  Money  spent  in  scientific  investiga- 
tions to  determine  the  proper  appliances  and  materials  and 

i53 


154  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

the  best  way  of  performing  each  task  is  largely  wasted  unless 
instructors  are  provided  who  are  competent  and  willing  to 
teach  the  workmen.  <* 

Suggestions  of  H.  L.  Gantt 

Gantt  devoted  particular  attention  to  this  difficulty  in 
his  analysis  of  the  human  problems  in  factory  manage- 
ment. The  suggestions  in  his  "Work,  Wages,  and  Profits," 
regarding  the  training  of  employees  may  be  summarized  as 
follows : 

1.  Make  a  detailed  investigation  of  each  piece  of  work 

which  will  discover  and  record  the  best  methods 
and  standard  time  for  every  operation. 

2.  Insist  upon  the  selection  of  high-grade  workmen  who 

have  teaching  ability  to  instruct  beginners  as  well 
as  old  employees  who  are  inefficient. 

3.  Whenever    high    efficiency    is    obtained,    compensate 
•    liberally  not  only  those  who  actually  do  the  work, 

but  also  those  who  teach  and  those  who  supply 
materials  and  appliances  which  enable  the  workmen 
to  maintain  a  high  rate  of  production. 

A  Typical  Vestibule  School 

The  experience  of  the  Recording  and  Computing  Machines 
Company  of  Dayton,  Ohio,  affords  a  good  example  of  the 
way  in  which  vestibule  schools  were  established  during  the 
war  as  well  as  an  excellent  statement  of  some  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  involved  in  their  management.  This  fac- 
tory employed  in  1918  about  8,600  people,  of  whom  5,000 
were  women.  Many  of  the  operatives  were  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing Russian  combination  time  fuses,  the  work  being 
done  in  aluminum,  brass,  and  various  other  metals,  and  re- 
quiring accurate  machining  and  close  measurements.  Manu- 


VESTIBULE   TRAINING  155 

facturing  limits  often  ran  as  low  as  .0005  inch  in  metals 
quite  difficult  to  work. 

1.  Meeting  a  Skilled  Labor  Shortage.    The  supply  of  labor 
in  Dayton  in  1917  seemed  inadequate  to  meet  either  existing 
or  future  demands.     Men  were  scarce  and  the  few  who  were 
available  were  either  in  clerical  occupations  or  belonged  to 
trades  not  at  all  allied  to  the  mechanical  work  the  plant  had 
to  offer,  such  as  brick  laying,  structural  steel  working,  and 
masonry.     The  men  engaged  in  these  trades,  intelligent  and 
accustomed  to  high  wages,  were  naturally  unwilling  to  accept 
other  war  work  at  laborer's  pay,   and  yet  were  unable  to 
bridge    the    gap   caused   by    their    ignorance    of    mechanical 
methods.     It  was  the  function  of  the  new  vestibule  school  to 
train  these  men  and  at  the  same  time  to  make  use  of  the 
large  number  of  women  who  were  eager  to  do  their  part  in 
winning  the  war. 

2.  Forming  a  Training  Department.    The  training  depart- 
ment was  located  in  a  well-lighted  room  entirely  separate 
from  the  factory.     In  it  were  placed  all  of  the  different  types 
of  machines  upon  which  training  was  considered  necessary, 
such  as  hand-turret  screw  machines,  automatic  screw  machines, 
thread  millers,  drill  presses,  and  special  machinery  designed 
and  built  by  the  company.     In  addition  there  were  the  neces- 
sary benches  and  fixtures  for  teaching  inspection  and  assembly. 
The  employment  department  was  charged  with  the  selection 
of  employees,  and  when  students  had  finished  their  training 
in  the  school,  requisitions  were  filled  for  the  factory  depart- 
ments through  the   same  office.      The   foremen  were  never 
permitted  to  employ  people  nor  were  they  allowed  the  right 
of  discharge  without  the  sanction  of  the  employment  depart- 
ment. 

3.  Selecting  Instructors.     For  the  head  of  the  training 
school  a  workman  was  selected  who  was  an  expert  mechanic 
and  operator,  but  the  teachers  in  charge  of  female  learners 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

were  all  women.  Each  teacher  handled  from  three  to  five 
girls  at  a  time,  the  number  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the 
work.  Every  student  -went  thipugh  a  preliminary  study  of 
the  character  of  the  metal  being  used,  the  nature  and  func- 
tions of  the  tools  she  was  expected  to  handle,  and  the  method 
of  operating  the  machine.  When  the  new  employee  started 
the  work  for  herself,  she  was  carefully  supervised,  her  errors 
were  corrected  in  a  kindly  manner,  and  every  encouragement 
was  given  to  help  her  to  make  as  rapid  progress  as  possible. 

4.  Confidence  Inspired.     Before  the  training  department 
was  started  it  was  noticed  that  many  new  girls  upon  coming 
into  the  shop  were  extremely  nervous.     They  would  often 
break  down  and  wish  to  leave  the  shop  at  once  because  of  the 
fear  of  the  large  machine  tools  which  appeared  to  them  so 
dangerous  and  complicated.     Their  natural  fear  of  the  shop 
was  multiplied  by  the  fact  that  they  were  expected  to  begin 
their  work  in  the  midst  of  the  rush  and  roar  of  the  factory. 
In  a  separate  shop  under  women  teachers,  confidence  was 
gained  at  once.     It  was  only  natural  for  beginners  to   feel 
that  if  other  women  could  accomplish  the  work  without  danger 
that  they  too  could  learn  it  rapidly. 

5.  Purpose  Limited.     No  effort  was  made  to  train  for 
more  than  one  particular  job.     The  training  was  not  adver- 
tised as  general  mechanical  education,  but  every  pupil  under- 
stood that  she  was  being  taught  in  a  very  short  period  and 
that  if  she  came  to  have  any  mechanical  skill  it  would  have 
to  be  acquired  through  her  work  in  the  shop.     In- less  than 
ten  days  the  girls  were  trained  to  operate  hand-turret  lathes 
on  work  requiring  a  high  degree  of  precision,  and  it  is  claimed 
by  the  company  that  these  girls  when  entering  the  shop  at- 
tacked the  work  on  their  machines  with  vigor  and  confidence. 
In  less  than  three  weeks  they  reached  a  high  average  of  produc- 
tion  and   began   to   earn   the   bonuses   distributed   under   a 
graduated  system  of  pay. 


VESTIBULE   TRAINING  157 

6.  Continuation  Training.     The  training  of  the  vestibule 
school  was  continued  in  the  factory  by  carefully  selected  men 
known  as  "job  bosses."    Each  of  these  supervisors  had  under 
his  control  only  a  small  group  of  persons,  the  number  ranging 
from  seven  to  thirty  according  to  the  difficulty  of  the  opera- 
tion.    The  pay  of  the  job  boss  depended  in  part  upon  the 
average  bonus  of  all  the  operatives,  and  these  men  were  care- 
fully supervised  to  make  sure  that  they  understood  the  losses 
to  the  company  which  might  be  caused  by  injuring  the  health 
or  welfare  of  those  under  their  care. 

7.  Results  Achieved.     The  following  statements  made  in 
Industrial   Management,    May,    1918,    by   C.    U.    Carpenter 
of  the  Recording  and  Computing  Machines  Company  indicate 
some  of  the  results  achieved  after  only  a  few  months'  ex- 
perience with  the  training  department: 

We  have  a  large  assembly  department,  employing  over 
2,000  girls.  Two  sets  of  prominent  engineers  who  in- 
vestigated the  possibilities  of  production  from  this  plant 
reported  that  the  best  output  possible  from  this  assembly 
division  was  15,000  complete  fuses  per  day  in  two  shifts. 
By  thoroughly  training  the  girls  we  have  been  able  to  reach 
an  average  production  of  38,000  per  day  in  one  shift. 

In  addition  to  the  fuse  work,  our  company  is  building 
optical  instruments  of  a  character  that  requires  the  greatest 
precision,  much  of  the  work  being  held  within  limits  of 
.00025  inch.  This  work  requires  not  only  close  manufac- 
turing, but  also  most  careful  work  in  lens-making  and 
grinding. 

Before  beginning  this  work,  the  organization  made  a 
minute  survey  of  each  operation,  no  matter  how  small,  in- 
volved in  the  production  of  these  instruments.  This  included 
all  the  manufacturing,  assembly  and  lens-grinding  work. 
This  company  was  compelled  to  build  its  own  lens-grinding 
machinery,  as  none  could  be  purchased  in  this  country. 
When  we  finished  this  survey,  we  had  before  us  a  descrip- 
tion of  exactly  what  was  required  on  each  operation.  There 
was  necessarily  much  work  that  was  entirely  new  to  us, 


TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

as  well  as  to  other  American  manufacturers,  owing  to  the 
lack  of  experience  in  this  work  in  the  United  States.1 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  we  were  advised  that  it 
would  be  impossible  for  us  to  get  any  high-grade  lens- 
grinders  in  the  United  States,  and  many  dire  prophecies 
were  made  as  to  our  probable  failure.  However,  we  started 
the  training  school  in  the  grinding  of  lenses,  and  have 
developed  a  high-grade  body  of  lens-grinders,  both  men  and 
women,  within  the  past  six  weeks. 

We  produce  our  base  forgings  of  aluminum  on  hand-turret 
screw  machines.  On  this  particular  forging  there  are  56 
gauging  points,  with  allowable  limits  on  different  operations 
ranging  from  .0005  inch  to  .002  inch.  In  January,  1916, 
the  average  production  of  31  women  employees  was  eight 
pieces  per  hour.  While  the  operatives  were  apparently  busy 
at  this  rate  of  production,  my  experiments  showed  that  there 
should  be  produced  from  those  machines  as  a  fair  produc- 
tion an  average  of  35  pieces  per  hour.  We  put  our  old 
operatives  into  the  training  department,  and  within  four 
weeks  after  the  new  and  old  operatives  had  been  through 
this  training  department,  the  average  production  was  raised 
to  over  25  pieces  per  hour,  and  today  the  average  is  over 
55  pieces  per  hour.  The  same  results  were  obtained  on  all 
of  our  work,  such  as  machining,  inspection  and  assemblage. 

It  is  particularly  important  and  interesting  to  note  that 
many  of  our  most  skilled  operatives  are  men  and  women 
well  along  in  life.  We  find  that  while  the  young  worker 
has  more  vigor,  the  older  one  is  usually  more  careful  and 
steady,  and  more  anxious  to  keep  up  a  high  average  rate 
of  production.  Their  continuous  work  on  their  jobs  brings 
this  average  production  up  to  that  of  the  younger  and  more 
vigorous. 

We  have  demonstrated  that  strong,  healthy  women  can 
do  work  requiring  great  precision  after  they  are  thoroughly 
trained  quite  as  well  as  skilled  men  mechanics.  They  work 
on  hand-turret  screw  machines,  hand  millers,  power  millers, 
drill  presses,  thread  millers,  punch  presses,  routers  and 
special  machines  of  all  types.  They  are  remarkably  efficient 


1  Appendix  F  gives  the  detailed   operations  prepared  by  a   rubber  company  for 
use   as   standard    practice   in   its    vestibule   school. 


VESTIBULE   TRAINING  159 

as  inspectors.     We  have  also  taught  them  to  be  excellent 
tool-makers. 

Vestibule  Schools  in  Great  Britain 

England  utilized  the  vestibule  school  idea  on  a  large  scale 
during  the  war.  As  the  outcome  of  a  series  of  conferences 
between  representatives  of  labor  unions,  employers,  and 
government  officials,  a  general  argeement  was  reached  which 
allowed  the  suspension  of  the  usual  trade  rules  and  customs. 
This  paved  the  way  for  methods  of  training  which  under 
ordinary  conditions  would  have  been  quite  unsatisfactory  to 
organized  labor.  The  unions  agreed  to  have  unskilled  men 
and  women  trained  in  large  numbers  and  in  a  brief  period 
of  time  on  highly  specialized  processes. 

Three  Forms 

Training  for  munition  work  in  England  was  conducted, 
so  far  as  the  work  was  supervised  by  the  Ministry,  under  three 
different  plans: 

1.  Training  in  technical  schools. 

2.  Training  in  instructional  factories. 

3.  Training  in  special  ways — or  attached  to  individual 

works. 

Technical  schools  were  all  under  the  management  of  local 
authorities  and  financed  and  inspected  by  the  Ministry  of 
Munitions.  They  gave  instruction  in  technical  subjects  in 
evening  classes  and  trained  students  in  day  courses  who  later, 
received  training  under  production  conditions  in  factories 
under  government  control. 

The  instructional  factories  were  built  to  further  the  ruling 
idea  that  instruction  could  'best  be  given  under  production 
conditions  and  were  maintained  for  the  most  part  in  con- 
junction with  works  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  machinery 


160  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

for  other  plants.  But  the  most  interesting  feature  of  the 
entire  scheme  was  the  instructional  bay  or  division  of  an 
actual  factory  or  works.  Aftej?  a  preliminary  training  at  one 
or  another  of  the  technical  schools,  groups  of  girls  were 
sent  to  the  bays  or  divisions  set  aside  in  these  factories  where 
they  could  receive  instruction  to  fit  them  for  the  work  of  the 
particular  shop  to  which  they  were  finally  to  be  sent  as  opera- 
tives. 

Instruction  in  the  Factory  Itself 

One  of  the  largest  manufacturers  supplying  machines  in 
quantities  was  Messrs.  Alfred  Herbert,  Ltd.,  of  Coventry. 
This  firm  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  training  section  one 
of  the  bays  at  its  training  department  to  be  used  in  this  way. 
Many  of  the  girls  were  taught  to  work  as  tool-setters  for 
capstan  lathes  and  were  later  sent  to  the  factories  where  the 
lathes  were  being  installed  by  the  manufacturing  concern. 
There  the  girls  received  their  training  on  the  actual  machines, 
tools  being  supplied  to  the  workers,  so  that  when  they 
took  up  their  tasks  no  new  conditions  arose  which  were  likely 
to  undermine  their  confidence.2 

In  much  the  same  way  Hewlett  and  Blondeau,  of  Leagrave, 
placed  a  section  of  their  works  at  the  disposal  of  the  training 
section  for  the  teaching  of  various  branches  of  aircraft  con- 
struction, such  as  woodwork,  frame  and  wing  building,  plate 
metal  fittings,  and  erecting.  Each  girl  was  given  a  certain 
amount  of  instruction  in  a  specialized  branch  of  work  and 
.then  transferred  to  the  company's  factory  to  work  under  the 
usual  production  conditions.  She  was  then  brought  back  to 
the  training  bay  to  complete  her  instruction  before  being  sent 
out  to  any  local  firm  requiring  employees  in  that  line  of 
work. 


'United    States   Training   and    Dilution    Service:      "British    Methods   of   Training 
Workers   in   War   Industries." 


VESTIBULE   TRAINING  l6l 

In  some  centers  supplementary  courses  were  offered  in 
micrometer  reading  and  the  use  of  gauges  and  calipers  or 
in  mechanical  drawing  and  draftsmanship.  Lectures  on  shop 
practice  and  theory  were  not  frequently  used  except  where 
necessary  in  the  case  of  women  who  were  learning  the  elec- 
trical trades. 

Trend  Toward  Standardization 

The  English  experience  seemed  to  prove  that  training  was 
most  successful  when  manufacturing  operations  could  be  fully 
standardized  and  repetitive  processes  widely  introduced. 
Heavy  marine  engineering  or  construction  work  where  repeti- 
tion was  infrequent  proved  poorly  adapted  to  the  vestibule 
plan.  Students  who  did  not  have  a  good  general  education 
and  physique  as  well  as  some  mechanical  inclination  were,  of 
course,  at  a  great  disadvantage  in  attempting  to  prepare  them- 
selves in  a  short  time. 

One  of  the  English  munitions  works  established  under 
government  supervision  to  manufacture  shells  admirably  ex- 
emplifies the  way  in  which  manufacturing  processes  may  be 
adapted  under  emergency  conditions  to  fit  the  vestibule  plan. 
Instead  of  making  a  lathe  capable  of  performing  the  fourteen 
operations  required  on  each  shell,  this  firm  constructed  four- 
teen different  types  of  machines,  each  of  which  was  adapted 
to  a  single  operation  and  no  more.  The  simplification  of  the 
mechanism  in  each  case  was  carried  to  such  a  degree  that 
girls  and  unskilled  men  with  no  previous  acquaintance  with 
the  inside  of  an  engineering  plant  could  be  taught  to  run 
the  machines  efficiently  in  a  month  or  less.  At  the  training 
center  the  courses  were  so  arranged  as  to  allow  the  newcomer 
to  undertake  only  the  simplest  operations  at  first.  As  soon  as 
he  attained  the  standard  degree  of  proficiency  on  the  particular 
operation  he  was  advanced  to  more  difficult  work  on  another 
machine. 


102  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

French  Experience 

France  felt,  even  more  keenly  than  England,  the  shortage 
of  skilled  mechanics.  Dilutioi**was  fostered  by  a  government 
order  making  it  compulsory  for  every  factory  employing  300 
or  more  persons  to  maintain  a  training  department.  Exemp- 
tions were  granted  only  after  consideration  by  the  Ministry 
or,  in  the  case  of  smaller  factories,  where  suitable  arrange- 
ments could  be  made  with  some  local  technical  school  for 
training  the  workers. 

In  the  French  vestibule  schools,  an  hour  each  day  was 
commonly  given  to  technical  instruction,  such  as  the  reading 
of  drawings,  the  nature  of  the  materials  and  processes  used 
in  the  shop,  and  the  simple  related  principles  of  mechanics, 
physics,  metallurgy,  and  chemistry.3 

Supplementary  Instruction  in  United  States 

There  is  a  marked  tendency  in  the  United  States  to  appre- 
ciate the  need  of  teaching  beginners  in  the  vestibule  school 
something  of  such  matters  as  the  following:  the  character 
and  sources  of  the  raw  materials  used;  the  general  processes 
of  manufacture  and  their  relation  to  each  other;  the  purpose 
and  elementary  principles  involved  in  scheduling  and  planning ; 
meaning  of  mechanical  or  technical  terms  in  common  use; 
the  purposes  and  methods  of  inspection;  quality  standards; 
the  use  of  micrometers  and  gauges;  blue-print  reading;  inter- 
pretation of  job  tickets  and  instruction  sheets;  the  care  of 
machines  and  tools ;  elimination  of  waste ;  safety  and  hygiene ; 
co-operation  with  the  medical  and  employment  departments. 
The  majority  of  these  matters  are  not  taught  at  all,  or  at 
least  very  ineffectually  by  shop  instructors  or  foremen,  or 
even  by  vestibule  teachers  who  are  tradesmen  without  special 
training  for  teaching.  Two  methods  may  be  used  for  giving 


8  Report    of   Committee   on   Industrial   Education   of   the    National   Association   of 
Manufacturers,    May,    1918. 


VESTIBULE   TRAINING  163 

supplementary  instruction.  One  is  to  place  it  in  the  hands 
of  special  teachers  who  have  the  time  and  the  ability  to  collect 
and  organize  the  necessary  data.  The  other  is  to  have  the 
trade  instructors  take  a  special  training  course  in  the  handling 
of  this  material. 

Advantages  of  the  Vestibule  Method 

The  advantages  of  the  vestibule  method  of  training  may 
be  summarized  under  the  following  headings: 

1.  Instruction  does  not  interfere  with  work  being  carried 
along  in  the  normal  process  of  manufacture. 

2.  Expensive  machine  tools  and  other  department  equip- 
ment can  be  kept  up  to  standard  production,  thus  decreasing 
the  losses  from  fixed  charges  and  overhead  expense. 

3.  Breakage  and  waste  of  materials  due  to  carelessness 
and  lack  of  supervision  are  greatly  minimized. 

4.  The  bulk  of  the  turnover  is  taken  from  the  shop  and 
kept  in  the  school.     Persons  not  fitted  for  the  work  are  dis- 
covered before  they  cause  the  company  a  loss  by  being  put 
on  regular  work.    Ability  along  other  lines  can  sometimes  be 
discovered,    thus   allowing   transfers   to   be   made   with   the 
minimum  loss  to  employer  and  employee. 

5.  The  time  of  workmen  and  foremen  can  be  given  entirely 
to  the  routine  duties  of  the  shop. 

6.  Right  methods  can  be  taught  in  detail  from  the  start, 
thus  preventing  workmen  from  falling  into  wasteful  or  in- 
efficient habits  which  must  later  be  overcome. 

7.  Learners  have  their  habits  fixed  before  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  methods  of  slighting  their  work  in  order  to 
increase  production. 

8.  Skilled  workers  and   foremen  are  reluctant  to  teach 
beginners  and  do  not  adapt  themselves  to  individual  needs. 
This  is  overcome  by  securing  trained  instructors  who  devote 
more  time  to  each  beginner. 


164  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

9.  Few  skilled  workers  are  able  to  analyze  operations  into 
their  elements  and  teach  them  in  the  best  instructional  order. 
This  is  accomplished  by  analyses  made  before  the  vestibule 
school  is  started,  and  standard  practice  insures  that  each  in- 
structor follows  the  approved  procedure  in  teaching. 

10.  Better  sequence  of  work  in  good  instructional  order 
can  be  maintained  in  the  vestibule  school  than  in  the  shop.4 

11.  Uniform  methods  and  standards  of  quality  can  be  in- 
sisted upon  throughout  the  plant. 

12.  The  general  rules  and  regulations  governing  the  habits 
and  daily  routine  of  workers  can  be  taught  before  they  are 
sent  into  production  departments,  thus  tending  to  maintain 
better  discipline. 

13.  Working  conditions  in  the  training  section  are  less 
likely   to   cause   nervousness   and   discouragement.     This   is 
particularly   true  with  women   employees,   and   has   an  im- 
portant bearing  upon  the  work  of  young  persons,  who  are 
thus    freed    from   the   observation   and    ridicule    of   expert 
workers. 

14.  Emergency  demands  can  be  met  where  it  would  be 
impossible  to  train  sufficient  numbers  in  the  shop  within  a 
reasonable  length  of  time  without  seriously  disturbing  the  flow 
of  work. 

15.  The  vestibule  school  gives  opportunity  for  the  experi- 
mental try-out  of  machines,  tools,  fixtures,  and  methods  of 
operation  before  they  are  put  into  the  factory.     It  is  possible 
to  combine  the  school  and  the  experimental  shop. 


4  In  training  men  in  the  shipyards  it  was  found  best  to  begin  with  simple  work 
and  then  advance  to  more  difficult  operations.  When  instruction  was  given  under 
the  supervision  of  teachers  who  went  with  the  students  into  the  yard  to  work  on 
different  ships,  it  was  possible  to  keep  them  on  kinds  of  work  which  were  suited 
to  their  advancement.  Thus  in  learning  bolting  up,  the  beginner  started  with- 
deck  plates  or  deck  houses  and  was  gradually  advanced  to  the  more  complicated 
sections  of  the  hull.  On  the  other  hand,  when  a  whole  ship  was  given  over  to 
instruction  purposes,  it  was  found  that  it  was  impossible  to  maintain  a  proper 
instructional  sequence.  Chippers  and  calkers,  for  example,  had  an  excessive  amount 
of  work  to  do  because  of  the  demand  for  erecting  the  ship  within  a  reasonable  length 
of  time. 


VESTIBULE   TRAINING  165 

Disadvantages  of  the  Vestibule  Method 

Among  the  disadvantages  of  the  vestibule  method  of  train- 
ing pointed  out  by  various  manufacturers  who  have  tried  it, 
the  following  appear  to  be  significant: 

1.  Fluctuations  in  the  number  of  employees  to  be  trained 
for  a  given  operation  may  make  it  uneconomical  to  retain  full- 
time  instructors  or  maintain  school  equipment. 

2.  Production  work  is  always  better  than  work  done  for 
practice   purposes    on    waste    materials.      Since    commercial 
production  is  not  always  attainable  in  the  vestibule  school, 
this  sometimes  becomes  a  disadvantage. 

3.  Beginners  tend  to  attain  maximum  production  more 
quickly  when  associated  with  expert  workers  than  when  among 
unskilled  companions. 

4.  The  spirit  of  the  students  in  the  school  may  become 
that  of  careless  learners  rather  than  earnest  workmen.     In 
other  words,  the  spirit  of  the  schoolroom  rather  than  of  the 
shop  is  sometimes  engendered. 

5.  Vestibule  training  often  tends  to  become   superficial 
and  gives  the  worker  no  real  understanding  of  shop  procedure. 
It  tends  to  limit  the  operator  to  one  or  at  most  a  few  simple 
tasks. 

Small  Classes 

Experience  in  training  large  numbers  of  men  in  the  ship- 
yards and  munition  plants  as  well  as  in  training  technicians 
and  tradesmen  for  the  army  has  shown  that  the  small  class 
has  a  great  advantage  over  the  large  group.  The  number 
who  can  be  assigned  to  one  instructor  always  depends  upon 
the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  taught.  In  the  shipyards  it  was 
found  that  riveters  trained  in  small  classes  reached  the 
maximum  production  in  23  days  as  against  34  days  required 
where  they  were  taught  in  larger  groups. 


i66 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


Form  No.  1155 

EMPLOYEE'S   TRAINING   RECORD 

Name,  J P.  1*       Age:  18 

Date  Started,  3-11-10  Time  Started:  8.      A.  M. 

~~  P.M. 
Former  occupation:  Delivering  bread  after  school  hours. 

With  what  company:     

Has  employee  already  been  in  company's  employ:  No. 


Clock  No.,  34 
Rate:     $.57 


Occupation 


Department 


Foreman 


Rate 


Length  of 
Service 


General 
Character  of 

Service 
Rendered 


Bench  Lathe  Operator 


8-G 


$.57 


6-26-18 


Good 


Reasons  tor  taking  training  work:    To  receive  intensive  training  on  special  work. 

Date  of  Transfer  from  Training  Branch:   5-12-19.     Occupation:    Bench  Lathe  Operator. 


Transferred  to  8-G. 


Department  Foreman 

TRAINING   RECORD 


Rate:  $  57 


Name  of  Part 
Worked  On 


Part 
No. 


Opera- 
tion 


Machines 
Used 


Rate   of  Production 


Start  of 
Train- 
ing 


Finish 

of 

Train- 
,ing 


Aver- 


Total 

Produc 

tion 


Bail  Shifter 
Bearing  Case.  .  . 
Step  Bearing 

Holder 

Upper  Guide 
Bearing  Case.  .  . 
West  Suspension 
Lower  Stems .  .  . 

East  Suspension 
Lower  Stems.  .  . 


4208-D 
4323-E 

23033-0 

42674 

23I7S-B 


Turning 
Turning 

Turning 
Turning 
Drilling 
Reaming 

Reaming 


Bench  Lathe 
Bench  Lathe 
Bench  Lathe 
Bench  Lathe 

Bench  Lathe 


per  day 

10 
per  day 

10 
per  day 


per  day 

per  day 

12 
per  day 


29 
200 

29 
125 

125 


Note  changes  in  methods  or  fixtures  or  special  remarks:  On  part  No.  4323-E  production 
and  accuracy  was  increased  through  the  use  of  a  draw  bar  and  spring  collett  instead  of 
the  step  chuck  ordinarily  used  in  the  factory. 

EMPLOYEE'S  RATING  DURING  TRAINING 

(95-100%  Excellent)  (85-95%  Good)  (70-85%  Fair)  (50-70%  Poor) 


Ability 

Adaptability 
Attendance . 


Cleanliness  . 

Conduct 

Disposition . 


Health 

Honesty 
Initiative. . . 


Intelligence . 
Leadership.. 
Loyalty 


Neatness .  . 
Patience . . . 
Average .  .  . 


Place  additional  remarks  on  other  side. 


Figure  42.     Form  for  Training  Record 
Used  by  The  Sperry  Gyroscope  Company.     Courtesy  of  Industrial  Management. 


VESTIBULE    TRAINING 


I67 


Inefficiency  of  Evening  Classes 

Evening  classes  for  learning  shop  operations  have  not  as 
a  rule  proved  very  successful.  Evening  classes  maintained 
in  schools  away  from  the  shipyards  were  conducted  during 
1917  and  1918,  for  certain  shipbuilding  trades  such  as  riveting, 


p 
o 

340 
330 
310 
290 
270 
250 

0    230 
B 

a  210 

a. 

t±    170 
u 

i    .50 
*    130 

tio 

90 
70 
50 

?OGRESS  CHARTS  OF  TWO  WORKMEN    OF  AVERAGE  ABILITY, 
ME  PUT  THROUGH   A  TRAINING  DEPARTMENT,  THE  OTHER  NOT. 

Tair  Day's 
Oulput 

'Average 
237  pieces 

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121  pieces 

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ool  trouble 

1     i 

1     2    3    4    5     6     7     6    9    10    II    12    13    14   15    16    17    18   19  20  21   22  23 
WORKINQ   DAYS 

Daily  progress  of  workman  No.  2  in  training  department 
"           "          "          "          "1   ••  manufacturing    •» 

Figure  43.     Diagram  of  Training  by  Upgrading  Process 

Chart  No.  2,  United  States  Training  Service. 

chipping  and  calking,  and  bolting  up.  Even  with  two  or  three 
hours'  practice  every  evening,  it  was  found  that  this 
form  of  training  was  wasteful  and  did  not  accomplish  results 
that  were  at  all  comparable  in  efficiency  to  those  attained  by 
students  working  at  productive  tasks  in  the  shipyards. 


168  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

Necessity  of  Keeping  Records 

An  essential  adjunct  of  the  administration  of  the  vestibule 
school  is  a  form  of  'record  which  shows  the  daily  or  even 
hourly  production  of  the  student.  When  he  can  reach  and 
maintain  a  certain  standard,  he  is  ready  for  promotion  to  a 
production  department.  Figure  42  shows  the  record  used  by 
the  Sperry  Gyroscope  Company,  while  Figure  43  shows  a 
simple  form  of  record  suggested  by  the  United  States  Train- 
ing Service  of  the  Department  of  Labor,  Such  data  kept  over 
a  period  of  years  for  all  students  will  provide  valuable  in- 
formation upon  which  changes  in  management  can  be  based. 

Training  Instructors 

Because  the  vestibule  school  is  something  of  an  educational 
innovation,  it  has  created  the  need  for  an  entirely  new  tech- 
nique in  training  instructors.  Experience  in  Massachusetts, 
extending  over  a  period  of  several  years  in  training  trade 
teachers,  as  well  as  the  accomplishments  during  the  war  in 
industries  and  trades  of  various  kinds,  serve  to  demonstrate 
that  the  best  instructor  is  the  person  with  several  years'  prac- 
tical experience  on  the  operations  to  be  taught.  He  can  acquire 
the  necessary  pedagogical  training  in  much  less  time  than  it 
takes  the  experienced  teacher  to  acquire  the  shop  knowledge 
or  skill.  Training  classes  for  instructors,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  been  most  successfully  conducted  by  persons  of  broad 
technical  training  and  general  industrial  experience  who  were 
not  of  necessity  fully  conversant  with  all  the  details  of  the 
work  which  their  students  were  to  teach. 

Many  of  the  advantages  of  the  vestibule  plan  may  be 
retained  and  some  of  its  disadvantages  avoided,  by  using 
special  instructors  distributed  among  the  departments  who 
supervise  beginners  working  at  special  machines  or  benches. 
The  methods  used  by  such  instructors  do  not  differ  essentially 
from  those  in  use  in  the  vestibule  school. 


VESTIBULE   TRAINING  169 

Improvement  of  Employees  in  Service 

The  limitations  of  the  vestibule  plan  are  such  that  any 
large  establishment  must  expect  to  combine  with  it  a  number 
of  other  forms  of  training.  The  first  necessary  step  appears 
to  be  to  plan  for  inspectors  or  instructors  who  are  responsible 
for  the  student's  progress  after  he  leaves  the  training  section. 
Their  functions  are  to  make  sure  that  he  adjusts  himself  to 
the  new  environment  and  continues  to  make  progress  in  skill 
and  efficiency.  Beyond  this  the  problem  of  education  for  em- 
ployees breaks  up  into  a  diversification  of  specialized  classes 
and  opportunities  for  improvement. 

The  Westinghouse  Plan 

As  an  illustration  of  the  way  in  which  this  works  out  in 
practice,  the  plan  of  the  educational  department  of  the  West- 
inghouse Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company  at  East  Pitts- 
burgh, Pennsylvania,  is  given  in  outline. 

i.  Trade  apprenticeship  courses,  each  four  years  in  length, 
are  planned  for  draftsmen,  pattern-makers,  foundrymen, 
machinists,  tool-makers,  and  electricians.  Skill  is  acquired 
for  the  most  part  in  each  trade  by  working  on  materials  and 
machines  in  the  shops.  A  special  department  is  conducted 
in  the  works  for  preliminary  training,  where  practice  is  given 
in  the  more  difficult  operations  before  the  apprentice  enters 
the  regular  manufacturing  sections. 

A  minimum  of  four  hours  per  week  during  the  entire 
course  is  devoted  to  classroom  instruction.  Classes  meet  in 
the  educational  department  from  7  to  9  A.M.  for  the  study 
of  mechanical  drawing  and  practical  shop  problems.  Instruction 
in  mechanical  drawing  includes  blue-print  reading,  sketching, 
layout  problems,  and  tool  design ;  while  shop  problems  include 
related  English,  mechanics,  shop  system,  costs,  and  the  applica- 
tions of  the  principles  of  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and 
trigonometry  to  shop  work.  The  student  is  expected  to  do 


17°  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

two  hours'  homework   each  week,   in  addition  to  the  time 
spent  in  the  classroom. 

2.  Graduate  apprentices,  as*  well  as  those  who  are  still 
serving  their  terms,  may  be  enrolled  in  the  Casino  Technical 
Night  School,  an  institution  under  separate  management  but 
largely  supported  by  the  Westinghouse  management.     This 
school  also  draws  a  considerable  number  of  students  from 
all  departments  of  the  company,  many  of  whom  have  received 
instruction  at  the  plant  in  forms  other  than  those  afforded 
in  the  apprentice  school.     There  are  two  main  departments, 
one  in  engineering  and  the  other  giving  preparatory  courses 
leading  to  enrolment  in  the  freshmen  classes  of  the  engineer- 
ing course.      Studies  in  the  engineering  department  include 
laboratory  work,  lectures,  and  classroom  exercises  in  physics, 
chemistry,    metallurgy,    theoretical    electricity,    applied    elec- 
tricity, power,  and  mechanics.     The  related  courses  in  mathe- 
matics include  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry,  engineer- 
ing and  shop  problems,  and  both  conventional  and  applied 
design  and  mechanical  drawing  applied  to  construction  work 
and  engineering  projects.     Shop  work  is  given  in  pattern-mak- 
ing, foundry,  and  machine-shop.    As  a  prerequisite  to  gradua- 
tion, each  student  must  prepare  an  engineering  report  which 
is  criticized  for  its  English.     Those  who  need  the  instruction 
are  required  to  take  one  term's  work  in  business  English. 

The  preparatory  department  gives  instruction  in  shop 
arithmetic,  business  English,  spelling,  mechanical  drawing, 
and  hygiene.  The  night  school  also  maintains  a  foreign  de- 
partment with  a  series  of  courses  in  Americanization  and  the 
elementary  school  branches  for  non-English-speaking  em- 
ployees. 

3.  The  Westinghouse  Club,  located  in  Wilkinsburg,  about 
half-way  between  the  works  and  the  city  of  Pittsburgh,  is 
made  up  of  male  employees  who  meet  for  recreation,  athletics, 
and  study.     During  the  fall  and  winter,  lectures  on  various 


VESTIBULE   TRAINING  I71 

subjects  of  general  interest  are  given,  and  regular  classes  are 
conducted  for  the  systematic  study  of  the  theory  and  design, 
and  the  application  and  sale  of  Westinghouse  apparatus. 

4.  The  company  maintains  a  special  one-year  course  for 
college  graduates  who  may  specialize  in  works  management, 
sales,  or  engineering  and  design. 

5.  Students  who  have  had  two  years  of  college  preparation 
may   take   what  is   known  as   the   Intermediate   Apprentice 
Course,  which  is  two  years  in  length. 

6.  A  special  foreign  students'  course  is  maintained  for 
those  born  abroad  who  expect  to  return  to  foreign  countries 
as  operators  or  salesmen  of  Westinghouse  power  and  equip- 
ment. 

7.  Special  lectures  are  given  for  executives  and  members 
of  the  clerical  staff  from   1:10  to   1:50  P.M.   each  day  on 
subjects  relative  to  the  design  and  use  of  the  articles  manu- 
factured by  the  company,  the  technical  principles  underlying 
shop  practice,  or  the  work  of  associated  plants.     Those  who 
attend  share  half  the  expense  of  the  lecture  with  the  company, 
since  the  noon  hour  closes  at  1 130. 

8.  The   course  offered  by  this  company   for  production 
clerks  is  outlined  on  pages  184  and  185  of  Chapter  XI,  "Train- 
ing Minor  Executives." 

9.  During  the  war,  vestibule  sections  were  maintained  by 
the  Westinghouse  plant  for  machine  tool  operators,  special 
electrical  work,  such  as  winding,  insulation,  and  inspection, 
for   tracing,   detailing,    and   lettering,    and    for   clerical    and 
stenographic  employees. 

For  an  outline  of  similar  work  done  by  the  Schenectady 
Plant  of  the  General  Electric  Company,  see  Appendix  C. 

Co-operation  with  Public  Schools 

It  is  conceivable  that  certain  forms  of  vestibule  training 
or  even  courses  for  foremen  and  minor  executives  may  be 


172  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

given  advantageously  in  school  buildings  near  the  plant.  The 
greatest  administrative  obstacle  to  this  kind  of  training  in 
educational  institutions  is  that,  continual  fluctuations  in  the 
demand  for  labor  make  the  schoolwork  exceedingly  irregular. 
Where  the  factory  has  a  school  of  its  own,  instructors  for 
certain  kinds  of  operations  can  be  kept  busy  at  other  work 
and  the  equipment  can  be  used  for  routine  production  when 
there  are  no  classes  to  teach.  Similarly,  instructors  for  small 
groups  of  minor  executives  or  emergency  squads  can  be  drawn 
from  operating  or  staff  departments  on  a  part-time  basis. 
Co-operation  between  the  school  and  the  shop  is  possible  and 
desirable  to  a  much  greater  extent  in  giving  related  academic 
or  technical  instruction. 

The  work  of  first  importance  to  public  education  is  with 
working  youths  from  14  to  18  years  of  age.  The  indirect 
benefits  accruing  to  industry  from  a  continuation  or  part-time 
schooling  which  makes  for  better  Hying  and  more  intelligent 
citizenship  are  coming  to  be  universally  acknowledged  by  busi- 
ness men  as  well  as  educators.  No  program  of  shop  instruc- 
tion can  carry  students  very  far  who  lack  a  thorough 
grounding  in  the  common  school  subjects  and  a  working 
knowledge  of  science  and  shop  mathematics.  Continuation 
Education,  on  the  other  hand,  must  not  be  too  academic,  but 
must  appeal  to  the  student  through  instruction  related  to  his 
work. 

The  age  of  the  pupils  and  the  character  of  their  educational 
needs  make  the  high  school  the  ideal  instructional  center.  It 
ought  to  be  possible  for  pupils  15  to  18  years  of  age  to  enter 
employment  with  the  feeling  that  their  school  hours  are  merely 
being  changed.  Their  connection  with  educational  activities 
ought  never  to  be  sharply  severed.  Industry  should  give  them 
assistance  in  learning  the  rudiments  of  the  new  job;  the  school 
should  take  account  of  the  new  environment  and  help  them 
to  make  the  most  of  it. 


VESTIBULE   TRAINING  173 

Part-Time  Employment  for  Students 

A  committee  of  the  High  School  Masters'  Club  of  Massa- 
chusetts reporting  in  March,  1919,  distinguishes  the  following 
types  of  part-time  employment  for  high  school  students: 

1.  Occasional  types 

(a)  Seasonal  employment:     Includes  those  pupils,  prin- 

cipally members  of  the  graduating  class,  who  find 
positions  open  to  them  on  condition  that  they 
leave  school  before  the  time  of  graduation.  Also 
includes  pupils  needed  in  agricultural  pursuits  in 
the  spring  or  fall. 

(b)  Unrelated  employment:     Includes  pupils  at  work 

during  part  of  the  day  or  week  at  tasks  not 
directly  related  to  the  instruction  received  in 
school.  The  majority  of  this  group  are  forced 
into  employment  for  financial  reasons. 

(c)  Related  optional  employment:     Includes  pupils  dis- 

missed from  some  of  their  classes  to  do  work 
closely  connected  with  their  studies.  Clerical 
students  may  be  assigned  as  office  assistants  to 
principals,  or  shop  students  may  do  repair  work 
on  school  buildings.  Similar  work  may  be  done 
in  local  commercial  or  industrial  concerns. 

(d)  Related    required    employment:      Includes    pupils 

whose  school  programs  call  for  practical  e*xperi- 
ence  to  supplement  the  theoretical  instruction  of 
the  classroom.  Assignments  may  be  for  vacations 
or  only  for  a  few  weeks,  or  they  may  continue 
through  the  entire  year. 

2.  Regular  types 

(e)  Alternating  attendance  and  employment:    This  plan 

applies  to  pupils  whose  programs  are  arranged 
to  allow  alternating  attendance — by  weeks,  days, 


174  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

or  half-days — in  the  school  and  in  the  shop  or 
office. 

(f)  Continuation  attendance :  Includes  employed  minors 
who  are  obliged  to  spend  a  stipulated  number  of 
hours  weekly  in  school. 

With  the  exception  of  type  (f),  all  of  these  forms  of 
part-time  education  are  now  prevalent  among  high  schools 
throughout  the  United  States.  Unfortunately,  the  predominant 
types  are  seasonal  and  unrelated  employment.  If  the  secondary 
school  is  to  make  the  most  of  its  opportunity,  it  must  increase 
the  number  of  pupils,  especially  among  graduate  students  and 
those  in  the  third  and  fourth  years,  who  find  an  appreciable 
part  of  their  school  instruction  closely  related  to  their  occupa- 
tions. Of  course,  a  large  share  of  the  responsibility  for  a 
working  plan  rests  with  employers;  the  school  cannot  accom- 
plish much  alone. 

Whether  or  not  the  high  school  should  take  over  nearly 
all  continuation  and  part-time  education  cannot  yet  be  an- 
swered for  the  country  at  large.  Highly  desirable  as  such  an 
arrangement  may  appear  in  theory,  there  are  often  local  or 
personal  circumstances  which  make  it  injudicious. 

Urgency  of  Present  Situation 

The  present  situation  is  so  urgent  that  industries  must 
launch  their  training  plans  at  once,  regardless  of  what  the 
schools  may  ultimately  find  it  possible  to  do.  It  is  therefore 
essential  that  every  industrial  enterprise  appraise  the  local 
educational  institutions  and  endeavor,  possibly  in  some  such 
manner  as  suggested  by  the  outline  of  the  General  Electric 
Company's  work  at  Schenectady,  to  help  its  employees  and 
instructional  staff  to  make  good  use  of  them. 


CHAPTER  XI 

TRAINING  MINOR  EXECUTIVES 

Planning  for  Transfers  and  Promotion 

One  of  the  fundamental  problems  in  management  is  that 
of  provision  for  continuity  in  the  life  of  the  organization. 
Even  in  peace  times,  there  are  numerous  factors  operating  to 
bring  about  changes  in  personnel  and  in  policies.  The  varying 
ambitions  and  abilities  of  the  working  force  are  causes  work- 
ing all  the  time  to  disturb  the  existing  arrangements,  and 
give  rise  to  readjustments  in  positions  and  methods  of  man- 
agement. Real  progress  is  possible  only  when  transfers  and 
promotions  are  made  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  well-trained 
and  naturally  qualified  persons  into  executive  positions.  The 
preparation  of  minor  executives  has  been  neglected,  as  a  rule, 
even  in  companies  which  have  stressed  the  matter  of  the  care- 
ful initial  selection  of  employees. 

W.  H.  McElwain  Company — Training  Plan 

The  W.  H.  McElwain  Company  of  Manchester,  New 
Hampshire,  believes  that  one  of  the  greatest  enemies  to  growth 
is  the  person  who  looks  with  contempt  or  disdain  upon  the 
ability  of  his  followers  to  grow.  One  of  the  essential  qualifi- 
cations for  the  heads  of  large  departments  in  their  shoe  fac- 
tories is  the  ability  to  train  and  develop  men. 

The  company  believes  that  the  open  door  to  advancement 
is  one  of  the  most  powerful  incentives  before  the  workers  in 
any  industrial  enterprise.  But  they  also  realize  that  no  one 
can  pass  through  this  open  door  unless  he  is  properly  prepared. 

175 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

The  Situation  Outlined 

W.  L.  Shaw,  head  of  the  planning  division  in  this  com- 
pany's central  plant  at  Manchester,  outlines  the  situation  as 
follows : 

The  question  of  the  absorption  of  new  workers  into  an 
organization  seems  to  me  obviously  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant problems.  I  cannot  see  how  any  concern  can  survive 
permanently  unless  it  constantly  gives  a  great  deal  of  thought 
to  preparation  for  the  future. 

If  you  take  a  young  person  who  has  had  a  very  good 
general  education  and  put  him  into  a  large  organization,  is 
it  not  very  clear  that  the  sooner  you  can  give  him  some  clear 
conceptions  of  how  your  concern  is  organized  and  what  your 
policies  and  methods  are,  the  quicker  he  is  going  to  fall  into 
line?  And  as  soon  as  he  has  absorbed  the  technical  details 
he  is  going  to  do  better  work  and  be  much  less  likely  to  make 
errors  which  may  cause  trouble. 

In  taking  a  new  member  into  an  organization  a  large 
part  of  the  first  week  or  two  is  usually  absorbed  in  developing 
acquaintanceship  with  other  individuals.  As  Mr.  McElwain 
used  to  say,  "It  will  take  a  month  or  so  to  let  the  new 
things  soak  in."  The  head  of  the  instruction  department 
which  we  have  lately  installed  speeds  up  this  process  of  in- 
troduction and  "soaking  in,"  instead  of  leaving  it  to  be  a 
matter  of  accident,  depending  largely  upon  the  personality  of 
the  individual  as  to  whether  he  does  or  does  not  become 
acquainted  with  the  new  surroundings. 

We  first  became  interested  in  this  phase  of  training  in 
connection  with  job  analysis.  When  we  took  up  time-study 
work  we  first  thought  that  we  would  permit  well-qualified 
workmen  to  be  time-study  men.  This  was  a  failure;  they 
could  not  do  it.  We  should  first  have  had  to  give  them 
courses  in  physics  as  well  as  arithmetic  and  other  mathe- 
matics. After  trying  several  men  from  the  shops,  we  had 
to  give  up  the  idea. 

We  next  tried  several  graduates  from  technical  colleges, 
but  they  proved  equally  hard  to  handle.  They  were  un- 
popular with  the  workmen,  and  were  continually  causing 
trouble  because  of  their  lack  of  sympathy  with  the  worker's 


TRAINING    MINOR   EXECUTIVES  177 

point  of  view,  or  because  they  did  not  understand  our  methods 
or  policies.  Finally,  after  watching  their  work,  we  concluded 
that  the  fundamental  difficulty  lay  in  certain  essential  matters 
which  to  us  seemed  obvious  in  our  daily  work. 

Gathering  Information 

Under  the  direction  of  the  planning  department,  a  man 
was  then  detailed  to  spend  several  months  in  collecting  material 
which  could  be  made  the  basis  for  training  time-study  men, 
technical  persons  for  certain  factory  departments,  and  both 
men  and  women  for  the  planning  and  employment  depart- 
ments. It  became  evident  from  the  start  that  it  would  be 
almost  an  endless  task  to  prepare  all  the  instruction  material 
in  detailed  form,  so  a  loose-leaf  syllabus,  merely  a  check  list 
of  topics,  was  hit  upon  as  the  most  desirable  substitute.  This 
plan  made  it  possible  to  add  material  from  time  to  time  as 
regulations  were  changed,  or  as  additional  charts  or  illustrative 
material  were  prepared.  The  following  paragraphs  are  taken 
in  part  from  the  introduction  to  the  syllabus : 

A  few  statements  are  necessary  in  order  to  give  one  a  clear 
idea  of  this  binder.  In  the  first  place  it  is  not  a  text-book,  but  is 
a  reference  book  for  the  instructor  to  use.  To  be  sure,  several  parts 
of  the  book  are  given  to  the  apprentice,  such  as  the  check  lists, 
detailed  instructions  for  time-study  practice,  etc.,  but  these  are  given 
separately.  The  idea  was  primarily  to  collect  all  the  written  data 
used  in  the  course,  and  to  put  them  in  one  place  in  usable  form. 
In  this  way  it  was  possible  to  simplify  the  instruction  work,  and 
put  it  in  such  form  that  another  person  could  take  up  the  instruction 
work  without  serious  delay. 

The  detailed  factory  check  lists  are  complete  for  all  factories, 
and  are  the  best  thing  we  know  of  for  making  sure  that  a  man 
will  get  detailed  knowledge  of  whatever  particular  department  he 
will  specialize  in  later.  For  example,  if  Mr.  Brown  wishes  a  man 
trained  for  upper  leather  work,  that  man  will  be  given  the  check 
lists  on  upper  leather  and  upper  leather  tannery  to  study,  after 
completing  the  regular  course.  The  man  will  take  these  check  lists 
into  the  factories  and  will  get  all  the  information  asked  for  in  the 


TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

items.     When  Mr.  Brown  gets  the  man,  he  can  put  him  to  work, 
knowing  that  he  is  prepared  for  it. 

No  one  person  gets  .all  the  course.  The  writer  is  of  the  opinion 
that  the  work  of  the  planning  department  will  grow  into  the  lines 
of  investigation  and  research,  rather  than  toward  mere  time-study 
work,  and  that  to  accomplish  this,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  men 
who  have  a  general  knowledge  of  the  whole  business,  and  who  have 
in  addition  a  very  detailed  knowledge  of  some  particular  factory 
or  department.  We  are  trying  to  work  along  these  lines  now,  and 
we  believe  that  the  department  will  be  in  a  stronger  position  when 
we  have  in  our  organization  a  man  who  understands  thoroughly 
each  department  of  the  business.  This,  however,  will  not  narrow 
the  men  by  too  extreme  specialization.  As  the  first  step  toward  this 
tentative  plan,  each  man  gets  one  or  two  of  the  detailed  check 
lists  and  no  more. 

It  is  understood,  of  course,  that  the  material  included  in  the 
syllabus  does  not  indicate  the  amount  of  actual  "Laboratory"  work 
done  in  the  course.  It  is  the  plan  to  have  each  man  get  considerable 
working  experience  by  doing  layout  work,  process  reports,  findings 
tests,  and  time  studies,  while  still  under  the  supervision  of  the 
instructor.  Whenever  possible,  such  work  is  requested  from  the 
planning  department  managers  and  therefore  time  is  not  wasted  in 
theoretical  field  work.  As  this  work  varies  daily,  it  is  obviously 
impossible  to  line  up  specific  items  to  be  done  by  the  apprentices. 

SUBJECTS  IN  THE  TRAINING  COURSE 

The  outline  of  the  subjects  covered  by  the  training  course  is 
given  below.  Starred  topics  are  taken  up  only  by  persons  specially 
selected  to  do  the  work  indicated.  Thus  the  slide-rule  instruction 
(topic  No.  ii )  is  usually  given  only  to  clerks  or  others  who  are 
required  to  make  use  of  the  slide-rule  in  their  daily  work.  A  chart 
and  condensed  instructions  regarding  the  use  of  the  slide  rule  are 
provided  with  the  thought  of  giving  special  help  in  multiplication 
and  division.  Similarly  the  section  on  the  "Theory  of  Employment 
and  Labor  Conditions"  (topic  No.  18)  is  given  in  detail  only  to 
persons  who  are  likely  to  enter  the  employment  department.  The 
period  of  instruction  usually  lasts  from  one  to  three  weeks,  according 
to  the  range  of  subjects  to  be  covered,  the  position  for  which  the 
apprentice  is  being  fitted,  and  the  size  of  the  class  taking  the  course. 


TRAINING   MINOR   EXECUTIVES 


179 


INSTRUCTION  COURSE:     OUTLINE  OF  SUBJECTS  COVERED 


A.  Office  and  classroom: 

1.  Instruction  system. 

2.  W.    H.    McElwain    Com- 

pany. 

3.  Planning  department. 

4.  F  o  r  e  m  a  n's   instruction 

book. 

5.  Company  system. 


6.  Order  department. 

7.  Fundamental      ideas     on 

which     our     work     is 
based. 

8.  Personality. 

9.  Individual     system     and 

technique. 

10.  Tact  and  psychology. 
*n.  Slide-rule. 
*I2.  Elements    of    time-study 

practice. 
*I3.  Findings  tests  and  layout 

work. 

14.  Preliminary      instruction 

on  shoe  manufacturing. 

15.  Elements  of  report-mak- 

ing. 
*i6.  Drawing. 


17.  Theory    of    organization 

and  management. 
*i8.  Theory     of     employment 
and  labor  conditions. 


Purpose  and  explanation  of. 
History  and  organization. 

Organization,     functions,     and 

routine. 
Knowledge  of  contents. 

Relation :  Supply  and  shoe  fac- 
tories' sheet  system,  delivery 
calendars'  tag  system,  abbre- 
viation catalogue. 

System  used. 


Theory  and  practice. 
Theory  and  practice. 

Theory  and  practice  work. 
Parts,  methods  of  construction. 
Forms. 

Free-hand. 

Mechanical. 

Diagrams. 

Graphic  representation. 


180  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

B.  Fieldwork 

Shoe  factory  men.  Supply  factory  men. 

Shoe  factory  visits;  technical^*  Shoe  factory  visits,  general. 

Supply  factory  visits,  general.  Shoe  factory  visits,  technical. 

Laboratory   practice:    stitch-  Laboratory   practice:     tannery, 

ing,  lasting,  making,  finish,  upper-leather,  cloth,  general ; 

or  tree.  or  sole  leather,  heel,  general. 


Criticism   and   correction   of      Criticism     and     correction     of 
work.  work. 

C.  Follow-up:  Talks  with  the  man  and  with  his  manager,  to  keep 
track  of  work  done,  and  to  gather  additional  material  for 
instruction  wherever  that  is  found  to  be  necessary.  It  may 
be  necessary  to  extend  it  over  a  period  of  two  or  three  months, 
depending  upon  the  employee's  success. 

METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

1.  CHARTS 

The  course  was  first  given  by  the  man  who  had  collected  the 
material.  In  the  process  of  his  investigation,  he  had  gathered  a 
large  fund  of  illustrations  drawn  from  the  experience  of  members 
of  the  company  which  could  be  used  to  advantage  in  teaching  each 
topic.  Organization  charts,  diagrams  of  machines  and  operations, 
and  supplementary  material  from  recent  publications  were  also  made 
a  part  of  the  subject  matter. 

2.  EXHIBITS 

To  help  the  student  in  getting  the  first  conceptions  of  the  materials 
and  methods  involved  in  shoe  manufacture,  a  small  museum  was 
prepared  containing  a  series  of  exhibits  dealing  with  each  of  the 
more  important  sections  of  the  industry.  The  collection  includes 
samples  of  various  kinds  of  leather,  shoes  in  every  stage  of  con- 
struction, machine  parts,  and  charts  and  diagrams  of  different 
processes.  With  such  an  exhibit  at  hand,  it  is  relatively  easy  to 
explain  the  sources  and  uses  of  the  different  materials  used  in 
shoes,  how  the  shoe  is  constructed,  or  the  relative  advantages  and 


TRAINING   MINOR   EXECUTIVES  l8l 

disadvantages  of  the  welt  and  McKay  processes.  Explanations  in 
workrooms  are  not  always  satisfactory,  owing  to  the  noise,  and 
protracted  discussion  is  not  desirable  since  it  is  likely  to  interfere 
with  the  regular  routine  of  the  shop.  Through  the  use  of  the 
exhibit,  the  student  becomes  acquainted  with  the  more  elementary 
phases  of  shoe  manufacture  before  entering  the  plant  on  an  instruc- 
tional visit  and  his  time  can  be  spent  to  much  better  advantage. 

3.  VISITS  TO  FACTORY 

As  the  outline  suggests,  visits  to  various  parts  of  the  shoe 
factory,  or  to  the  factories  manufacturing  supplies,  constitute  an 
important  section  of  the  course.  Each  visit  is  made  with  certain 
definite  objects  in  mind,  and  the  student  has  at  hand  a  list  of  matters 
to  which  he  must  devote  his  attention. 

4.  USE  OF  LIBRARY 

The  instruction  department  also  contains  the  plant  library,  dealing 
with  such  topics  as  scientific  management,  industrial  organization, 
business  systems,  employment  management,  and  other  subjects  of 
interest  to  executives  and  progressive  workmen.  The  head  of  the 
department  is  expected  to  keep  in  touch  with  important  additions 
to  the  literature  of  these  fields  and  to  assist  the  members  of  the 
organization  in  finding  books  or  articles  bearing  upon  their  immediate 
problems. 

At  present,  the  instruction  is  being  given  very  successfully  by 
a  young  woman,  a  college  graduate,  who  studied  the  course  and 
various  departments  of  the  plant  in  an  intensive  manner  for  some 
months. 

The  Purpose  of  the  Check  List  Sheets 

An  examination  of  the  sample  sheets  from  the  check  list, 
reproduced  herewith,  will  show  that  many  of  the  points  con- 
sidered are  of  the  kind  about  which  the  employee  in  most 
concerns  either  receives  no  instruction,  or  is  expected  to  gather 
his  information  in  haphazard  ways.  The  sheet  on  "Company 

[System"  suggests  a  variety  of  problems  which  are  sure  to 
confront  any  executive,  even  in  a  minor  position,  and  con- 
cerning which  he  should  be  thoroughly  intelligent  if  he  is  to 


182  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

render  efficient  service.  This  sheet  is  only  one  of  several  in 
the  binder,  all  devoted  to  the  general  subject  of  the  organiza- 
tion and  system  of  the  company. 

Training  in  Personal  Technique 

Much  attention  is  given  to  matters  of  personality  and 
individual  system  and  technique.  A  pointed  warning  for  the 
new  employee  is  contained  in  such  topics  as  ' 'talking  for 
personal  effect :  statements  which  may  be  taken  by  other  mem- 
bers of  the  organization  as  a  direct  or  indirect  'attempt  to 
climb'";  "bubbling  talk";  "constructive  versus  destructive 
criticism" ;  "definite  plans  for  utilizing  spare  time" ;  "discus- 
sion of  company's  plans  with  outsiders" ;  "acknowledgment 
of  the  plans  of  other  employees." 

A  frank  discussion  of  such  questions  with  a  capable  in- 
structor saves  many  young  men  and  women  from  needless 
blunders.  Furthermore,  criticisms  and  discipline  are  rendered 
much  more  effective  when  the  one  at  fault  can  be  confronted 
with  the  fact  that  he  has  been  properly  instructed  and  given 
fair  warning. 

Psychology  of  Specific  Approach 

Each  student  learns  something  of  the  "psychology  of 
specific  approach."  If  he  has  matters  to  bring  before  an 
executive,  or  a  report  to  make,  he  is  taught  how  to  organize 
his  material  and  learns  something  of  the  knack  of  gaining 
concentrated  attention  by  holding  himself  strictly  to  the  topics 
in  hand. 

Such  a  system  of  training  renders  distinct  vocational 
guidance  service  to  the  employment  department.  As  a  rule, 
those  who  are  enrolled  for  the  general  course  are  not  told 
what  department  they  are  being  prepared  for  until  the  work 
is  completed.  This  gives  opportunity  for  a  period  of  observa- 


TRAINING   MINOR   EXECUTIVES  I3 

tion  of  the  students  by  the  instructor  and  members  of  the 
planning  and  employment  departments,  who  are  thus  in  a 
position  to  place  the  candidates  to  better  advantage. 

The  Final  Examination 

The  only  feature  of  the  course  open  to  serious  question  in 
point  of  method  arises  in  this  connection.  A  written  examina- 
tion lasting  about  four  hours  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  course. 
It  is  intended  to  serve  as  a  further  gauge  of  the  apprentice's 
adaptability  and  of  his  readiness  to  undertake  any  particular 
responsibility.  The  claim  is  made  that  unsatisfactory  candi- 
dates thus  have  an  opportunity  to  prove  their  inefficiency 
before  they  are  assigned  to  important  positions  and  they  can 
be  dropped  from  the  department  at  once  instead  of  after  four 
or  five  weeks  of  unsatisfactory  work.  Several  objections  may 
be  urged  to  such  an  examination.  Many  very  capable  persons 
write  a  poor  examination  paper,  especially  under  conditions 
such  as  would  obtain  here  where  the  candidate's  means  of 
livelihood  are  more  or  less  at  stake.  Shorter  examinations  at 
intervals,  written  reports  on  selected  topics,  personal  confer- 
ences, the  preparation  of  a  note-book,  and  other  means  which 
will  suggest  themselves  at  once  to  any  instructor  would  prob- 
ably answer  the  purpose  equally  well  and  at  the  same  time 
relieve  the  apprentice  of  the  strain  of  facing  a  "final  ex- 
amination." 

Records  of  Graduates 

One  naturally  looks  to  the  records  of  its  graduates  as  the 
acid  test  of  a  school's  efficiency.  The  statement  is  made  by 
the  department  that  has  this  work  in  charge  at  the  W.  H. 
McElwain  Company  that  the  progress  of  employees  who  have 
taken  these  instruction  courses,  now  numbering  nearly  100, 
is  on  the  average  twice  as  fast  as  in  the  case  of  those  who 


TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

entered  the  organization  without  any   preliminary  training. 
No  better  proof  of  successful  accomplishment  could  be  asked. 

'     .  -r* 

Westinghouse  Work  with  Production  Clerks 

The  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company 
of  East  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania,  has  adopted  a  method  for 
training  production  clerks  which  in  several  respects  closely 
resembles  the  training  for  minor  executives  described  above. 
The  company  employs  in  all  nearly  20,000  people,  and  in 
addition  to  the  large  works  at  East  Pittsburgh  it  has  several 
other  plants  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States.  So  large 
an  enterprise  involves  a  correspondingly  large  amount  of 
clerical  labor  in  handling  production.  Nearly  500  clerks  are 
employed  in  the  production  department  alone.  Some  definite 
plan  became  necessary  for  training  them  in  departmental  rou- 
tine since  the  labor  turnover  was  so  large  as  to  cause  a  number 
of  changes.  As  instructor 'a  man  was  selecte.d  who  had  been 
for  eighteen  years  connected  with  various  kinds  of  clerical  and 
executive  work  in  the  factory.  He  was  thoroughly  familiar 
with  every  department  and  was  well  grounded  in  the  details 
of  the  management  of  this  particular  division.  With  the  help 
of  other  members  of  the  instruction  department  he  drew  up 
a  plan  of  training  which  made  provisions  for  forty-eight  les- 
sons, each  lesson  to  be  two  hours  in  length.  The  present  plan 
is  to  bring  together  groups  of  ten  to  fifteen  persons  from  the 
department  at  convenient  times  during  the  day,  each  group 
receiving  two  lessons  each  week. 

Course  of  Study 

As  outlined,  the  course  includes  the  following  subjects: 

I.  A  brief  study  of  the  booklet  given  by  the  company 
to  each  new  employee,  to  make  sure  that  all  are 
familiar  with  the  general  rules  and  that  they  have 


TRAINING   MINOR  EXECUTIVES  185 

in  mind  certain  facts  relative  to  the  company  which 
ought  to  be  common  knowledge. 

2.  The  geography   of   the   plant,   taught   by  means  of 

maps  and  visits  to  departments.  Especial  attention 
is  given  to  the  routing  and  distribution  of  material. 
Some  consideration  is  given  to  the  location  and  the 
work  done  by  other  plants  owned  by  the  same  com- 
pany. 

3.  Company    organization,    showing    the    number    and 

nature  of  the  different  executive  officers  and  the 
relations  existing  between  departments. 

4.  A  study  of  a  chart  showing  the  path  of  orders  rilled 

by  the  production  department. 

5.  Standard  sizes  for  all  stock  in  common  use,  supple- 

mented by  an  explanation  of  the  necessity  for  keep- 
ing in  touch  with  the  division  of  standards,  which 
makes  a  constant  review  of  standard  sizes. 

6.  Standard  abbreviations.    Their  use  is  taught  by  means 

of  sentences,  dictation,  and  other  practical  methods 
in  order  to  familiarize  the  student  gradually  with 
their  use. 

7.  Detailed  location  of  subdepartments,  with  the  path 

taken  by  materials  from  and  to  these  departments. 

8.  Visits  to  departments  and  storerooms,   accompanied 

by  a  study  of  the  forms  in  use  with  reference  to 
each  of  them.  Some  time  is  spent  in  studying  the 
location  and  phone  numbers  of  the  different  store- 
rooms for  purposes  of  ready  reference. 

9.  A  detailed  examination  of  all  forms  and  blanks  in 

use  by  the  production  department,  with  detailed 
instructions  regarding  the  use  of  each  one  and  the 
errors  to  which  they  are  subject. 

One  of  the  principal  objects  of  this  course  is  to  make 
possible  a  flexible  organization.   Clerks  must  become  resource- 


186  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

ful  in  getting  information  from  every  possible  source  and 
must  be  sufficiently  well  trained  to  be  ready  for  transfer  tc 
other  work  in  case  of  promotion  or  emergency  calls. 

Adaptability  of  These  Plans 

The  principles  involved  in  both  of  the  instruction  schemes 
described  above  have  direct  applications  to  concerns  of  every 
kind,  and  the  methods  in  use  are  sufficiently  flexible  to  permit 
their  ready  adaptation  to  any  kind  of  work  or  to  any  type 
of  organization.  Written  specifications  for  hiring,  job 
analyses,  written  standard  procedures,  accident  reports,  or- 
ganization charts,  together  with  a  variety  of  other  material, 
are  already  available  in  many  concerns  as  a  basis  for  in- 
struction. 

Selection  of  Instructors 

The  results  of  the  work  in  the  W.  H.  McElwain  Company 
show  quite  clearly  that  organizing  and  teaching  ability  are 
required  in  the  instructor  rather  than  extensive  technical 
experience.  The  technical  part  of  the  instruction  is  supple- 
mented by  contact  with  the  shops  and  is  furnished  in  part 
by  foremen  and  others  who  are  experts  in  their  respective 
fields.  These  considerations  appear  to  decrease  considerably 
the  difficulty  which  most  firms  are  likely  to  anticipate  in 
finding  persons  who  are  capable  of  managing  a  training 
course  for  minor  executives.  In  many  respects  the  problem 
appears  to  be  somewhat  simpler  than  that  of  obtaining  in- 
structors to  train  workmen  or  operatives  where  technical 
trade  knowledge  and  skill,  usually  the  product  only  of  long 
experience,  must  be  combined  with  teaching  ability. 

The  administrative  problems  connected  with  instruction 
at  the  Westinghouse  plant  are  somewhat  different  in  that  a 
more  thorough  technical  knowledge  is  required  in  the  in- 


TRAINING    MINOR   EXECUTIVES  187 

structor.  In  either  case  expert  training  in  dealing  with  educa- 
tional matters  is  required  at  the  outset  in  collecting  the 
material,  in  arranging  it  for  teaching  purposes,  and  in  devising 
the  methods  of  instruction.  The  person  brought  in  from  the 
plant  to  do  this  kind  of  work  usually  fails  because  he  does 
not  have  at  his  command  a  technique  of  class  management 
and  does  not  appreciate  the  several  steps  which  must  be  taken 
by  the  learner.  On  this  account  it  appears  that  there  exists 
here,  as  in  other  departments  of  industrial  training,  a  dis- 
tinct field  of  service  for  state  and  federal  education  authori- 
ties, or  for  departments  of  education  connected  with  universi- 
ties, in  training  instructors.  The  methods  by  which  this  can 
best  be  accomplished  are  fully  discussed  in  Chapter  XIX. 

Small  Classes  and  Practical  Topics 

There  are  two  essential  conditions  for  successful  extension 
work  of  this  type  with  minor  executives  or  foremen.  One 
is  that  it  be  done  for  the  most  part  in  small  groups,  substituting 
problems  and  discussion  for  lectures.  The  other  grows  out 
of  the  first.  There  is  need  for  the  collection  of  a  fund  of 
problems,  drawn  from  the  company's  experience,  which  will 
replace  in  large  measure  instruction  through  formal  lectures 
or  by  means  of  problems  drawn  from  sources  which  make 
them  unreal  or  uninteresting  to  the  student.  Data  of  the 
sort  desired  are  relatively  easy  to  secure  for  mathematics, 
drawing,  mechanics,  or  shop  operations,  but  are  always  more 
difficult  to  formulate  for  management  classes,  foremen's 
courses,  or  office  employees. 

Discussion  of  Problems  in  Management 

As  an  example  of  what  needs  to  be  done,  a  suggestion 
recently  made  by  the  author  to  a  representative  of  a  New 
York  manufacturing  plant  may  be  cited.  It  appeared  that 


188  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

the  company  was  not  concerned  with  organizing  classes  of 
the  common  type  for  training  operatives,  but  was  deeply  in- 
terested in  acquainting  a  large  rgroup  of  young  persons,  who 
had  recently  come  into  positions  of  minor  executive  respon- 
sibility, with  the  points  of  view  and  experience  of  the  older 
members  of  the  organization  and  with  the  fundamental  policies 
of  the  company.  Among  the  methods  of  accomplishing  this 
aim  through  the  use  of  problems  and  group  discussion  which 
suggested  themselves,  in  the  course  of  the  conversation,  was 
the  following.  During  the  war,  the  principle  of  wage  pay- 
ment based  upon  the  use  of  index  numbers  was  adopted  by 
the  company.  Each  employee  receives  each  week  an  extra 
envelope  marked  "High  Cost  of  Living."  The  envelope  con- 
tains a  sum  of  money  added  to  his  earnings,  the  amount  of 
which  depends  upon  the  current  variation,  above  a  basic 
standard,  of  the  cost-of -living  index  numbers  published  by 
Bradstreet.  Many  of  the  young  executives  in  question,  it 
was  safe  to  assume,  had  only  a  hazy  conception  of  the  methods 
of  computing  index  numbers  or  of  the  exact  use  made  of 
them  by  the  company.  The  suggestion  was  made  accordingly 
that  the  group  should  be  set  to  investigating  this  matter. 
The  study  of  several  forms  of  index  numbers,  with  the  com- 
putation, perhaps,  of  an  index  for  the  local  prices  of  various 
•commodities,  and  the  effort  to  work  out  a  problem  or  two 
illustrating  the  paymaster's  actual  computations  for  the  "High 
Cost  of  Living"  envelopes — together  with  the  discussion 
which  would  naturally  grow  out  of  this  study — would  lead, 
obviously,  to  a  much  better  understanding  of  the  wage  policies 
of  the  company. 

The  Problem  Briefly  Stated 

Scientific  management  has  failed  to  make  as  good  progress 
as  it  should  because  no  technique  has  been  evolved  for  training 
the  non-commissioned  officers  who  must  translate  company 


TRAINING   MINOR  EXECUTIVES  1 89 

policies  and  standard  practice  into  action.  The  stability  and 
continuity  of  any  organization  depends  upon  the  continual 
advancement  of  well-qualified  persons  to  responsible  executive 
positions. 

Training  for  minor  executives  is  intended  to  help  solve 
these  problems.  It  depends  upon  research  which  will  supply 
from  the  company's  daily  routine  and  accumulated  experience 
the  specific  problems  and  exact  data  upon  which  instruction 
can  be  based. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  FOREMAN'S  TRAINING 

Evolution  of  the  Foreman 

Nearly  every  important  change  which  has  appeared  in  the 
organization  and  management  of  industrial  establishments  has 
brought  changes  in  the  position  and  the  duties  of  the  foreman. 
The  first  foremen  were  master  craftsmen  who  exercised  some 
supervision  over  unskilled  laborers  and  over  the  workmen 
and  apprentices  who  performed  routine  tasks.  In  time,  as 
the  shop  grew  larger  the  master-craftsman  became  a  super- 
intendent and  his  former  duty  of  immediate  direction  of  the 
work  devolved  upon  several  foremen,  each  exercising  authority. 
Continued  growth  made  it  necessary  to  centralize  certain  kinds 
of  work  in  the  hands  of  specialists,  and  the  powers  of  the 
foreman  began  to  be  contracted.  As  more  machinery  was 
used,  a  mechanical  department  was  created  to  operate  the 
power  plant,  install  new  equipment,  and  make  repairs  and 
alterations.  Increased  output  called  for  a  specialist  in  market- 
ing and  another  in  purchasing.  With  large  capitalization  and 
corporate  ownership,  the  auditor  and  treasurer  appeared. 
With  financial  control  taken  away  from  the  superintendent 
the  activities  of  the  foremen  were  still  further  narrowed. 

As  the  activities  of  the  plant  came  to  be  limited  to  a 
special  line,  and  as  the  advantages  of  standardization  in  equip- 
ment and  in  sizes  and  styles  of  product  became  apparent, 
designing  and  drafting  rooms  and  finally  chemical  laboratories 
were  added,  thus  taking  from  the  foreman  control  over  the 
design  of  his  product  and  the  methods  of  manufacture. 
Scientific  management  concentrated  the  scheduling  functions 

190 


THE  FOREMAN'S  TRAINING  I91 

in  a  planning  department;  it  standardized  operations  and 
methods  with  little  direct  assistance  from  the  foremen,  and 
gave  impetus  to  the  general  tendency  to  establish  specialized 
departments  such  as  those  for  time-keeping,  the  storage  and 
issue  of  stock,  cost  accounting,  inspection,  and  correspondence. 
More  recently  the  movements  for  establishing  employment 
departments  and  corporation  schools  have  taken  still  other 
functions  out  of  the  foreman's  control. 

Survival  of  Old  Type 

In  spite  of  these  strong  tendencies  to  reduce  the  number 
of  the  duties  discharged  by  foremen,  many  plants  remain  to 
which  the  following  description,  taken  from  "The  Administra- 
tion of  Industrial  Enterprises/'  by  Edward  D.  Jones,  still 
applies: 

In  ordinary  practice  there  is  but  one  foreman  to  a  shop. 
This  man  is  expected  to  look  after  tools  and  machines,  find 
materials  and  supplies  for  his  men,  instruct  them  in  the 
manner  of  doing  work,  arrange  tasks  so  that  everyone  is 
kept  busy,  enforce  a  proper  pace,  write  up  the  job  cards  and 
other  records,  preserve  order,  make  reports  as  requested 
concerning  the  progress  of  individual  jobs,  inspect  work  for 
quality,  lend  a  hand  in  repairs,  suggest  improvements  in 
equipment,  and  give  an  opinion  on  which  to  base  promotions 
and  discharges.  This  is  a  tremendous  range  of  functions, 
and  it  is  not  surprising  that  many  responsibilities  of  an 
administrative  character  slip  from  the  overloaded  shoulders 
of  the  foreman,  and  fall  upon  the  workman.  Hence  the 
general  demand  for  "experienced"  workmen;  a  demand 
which  means  that  men  are  wanted  who  can  take  care  of 
themselves  and  not  bother  the  foreman. 

Functional  Foremanship 

A  critical  examination  of  the  obvious  difficulties  presented 
by  the  foregoing  description  has  led  to  the  recommendation 
by  several  leaders  in  scientific  management  that  firms  establish 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

groups  of  staff  executives  to  whom  a  large  number  of  the 
foreman's  functions  are  to  be  delegated.  A  few  concerns 
have  adopted  a  scheme  which*  calls  for  eight  persons,  four 
who  serve  as  clerks  in  a  planning  room  and  four  who  act  as 
bosses  in  the  shop.  The  work  performed  by  the  four  clerks 
may  be  outlined  as  follows: 

1.  The  "order  of  work  clerk/'  or  "routine  clerk"  schedules 
the  work,  determining  the  order  in  which  jobs  come  to  each 
machine  or  production  center. 

2.  The  "instruction  card  clerk"  has  charge  of  all  shop 
orders.    These  include  standard  instructions,  lists  of  materials, 
records  of  standard  times,  and  other  memoranda  necessary 
for  the  use  of  the  "teacher"  or  "gang  boss." 

3.  The  "cost  and  time  clerk"  prepares  a  report  on  time 
and  material  and  allots  these  to  the  several  jobs,  workmen, 
and  shops,  such  records  being  used  by  the  pay-roll  and  cost 
accounting  departments. 

4.  The  "shop  disciplinarian"  maintains  personnel  records 
upon  which  transfers,  promotions,  suspensions,  and  discharges 
may  be  based. 

The  duties  divided  among  the  four  shop  bosses  are  as 
follows: 

1.  The  "machine  speed  boss"  keeps  the  progress  of  produc- 
tion up  to  the  limits  set  by  the  speeds  indicated  on  the  instruc- 
tion cards.     His  principal   function  is  not  to  speed  up  the 
workmen  but  to  repair  and  change  machines  in  such  a  way 
as  to  maintain  efficient  working  speeds.     He  must  be  able 
to  assist  the  shop  teachers  in  helping  workmen  to  become 
proficient  in  the  safe  operation  of  high-speed  machines. 

2.  The  "inspector"  is  charged  with  the  examination  of  the 
quality  of  the  output. 

3.  The  "repair  boss"  has  charge  of  alterations  or  repairs 
in  machinery  or  equipment. 

4.  The  "teacher"  or  "gang  boss"  takes  the  place  of  the 


THE  FOREMAN'S  TRAINING  193 

old  foreman  now  relieved  of  many  duties  and  transformed 
into  a  specialist.  The  duties  are  to  see  that  each  man  is 
provided  with  work,  that  he  has  the  right  equipment,  under- 
stands instructions,  and  performs  his  work  properly.1 

Present  Practice 

So  complete  a  separation  of  functions  is  not  common  in 
present-day  industrial  practice.  In  most  shops  under  scientific 
management  it  is  customary  to  find  a  planning  department 
with  other  staff  experts  who  perform  for  a  number  of  depart- 
ments the  duties  suggested  above  for  functional  foremen.  In 
a  few  cases  from  two  to  three  specialists  are  to  be  found  in 
one  department  or  shop.  The  Dennison  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany, for  example,  has  proposed  that  three  foremen  be  placed 
in  each  department,  one  to  have  charge  of  mechanical  equip- 
ment, another  to  have  control  of  production,  planning,  and 
time  and  cost  records,  and  the  third  to  represent  the  employ- 
ment department  in  maintaining  personnel  records  and  giving 
instruction  to  new  employees.  In  working  out  this  plan  the 
company  proposes  to  examine  the  records  of  all  of  their 
present  foremen  and  assign  them  according  to  natural  ability 
and  past  achievement  to  one  or  the  other  of  the  three  positions 
outlined.  Several  departments  will  be  consolidated  as  the  new 
leaders  are  assigned,  thus  making  it  unnecessary  to  increase 
the  total  number  of  foremen. 

It  is  quite  common  to  find  plants  decreasing  the  number 
of  workmen  in  charge  of  a  single  foreman,  or  adding  gang 
leaders,  supervisors,  inspectors,  or  leading  men  who  have 
charge  of  small  groups  of  operatives.  This  of  course  makes 
it  easier  for  the  foreman  to  give  instruction  to  new  employees 
and  to  see  that  revisions  of  standard  practice  are  put  into 
execution. 


1  For  a  full  discussion  of  the  principles  and  methods  involved,  see  Kimball's 
"Modern  Principles  of  Industrial  Organization,"  pages  96-109;  Jones's  "Administration 
of  Industrial  Enterprises,"  pages  156-162. 


194  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

W.  H.  McElwain  Company  Work  With  Foremen 

% 

The  W.  H.  McElwain  Company  believes  that  one  of  the 
chief  causes  for  failure  in  management  is  found  in  the  im- 
proper or  incomplete  training  of  foremen  or  assistant  foremen. 
After  organizing  employment  and  planning  departments,  this 
company  discovered  that  troubles  still  arose  because  the  depart- 
mental foremen  could  not  always  be  depended  upon  to 
elaborate  company  policy  into  the  details  of  daily  work.  The 
following  steps  were  taken  to  make  easier  the  transmission 
of  standard  practice  and  new  policies  to  minor  executives  and 
workmen,  as  well  as  to  improve  shop  morale  and  productive 
efficiency : 

1.  The  number  of  departments  in  the  factory  was  reduced 
from  ten  to  four. 

2.  Foremen  for  the  newer  and  larger  departments  were 
selected  with  care  in  order  to  secure  a  high  type  of  executive. 
This  enabled  the  firm  to  handle  its  employees  through  "big 
leaders"  rather  than  through  "bosses." 

3.  Under  each  department  manager  was  placed  an  execu- 
tive foreman  who  devotes  his  entire  time  to  administrative 
detail. 

4.  Under  the  general  supervision  of  the  department  head 
and  the  detailed  control  of  the  executive  foreman  was  placed 
a  carefully  trained  and  selected  force  of  assistants  called  "the 
rated  elastic  staff."    Members  of  this  staff  spent  part  of  their 
time  on  non-productive  labor  and  the  remainder  as  instructors, 
inspectors,   assistants,    supervisors,   machinists,   or   substitute 
operators.    The  staff  may  be  regarded  as  a  group  of  assistants 
with  an  enlarged  repertoire  who  are  subject  to  special  assign- 
ments.   This  method  replaces  the  older  plan  of  having  a  few 
assistants  who  spend  their  entire  time  on  non-productive  work. 
It  has  not  been  possible  to  introduce  this  phase  of  the  plan 
except  in  a  few  departments,  but  in  these  it  is  being  developed 
along  experimental  lines. 


THE  FOREMAN'S  TRAINING  195 

5.  Employees  for  the  elastic  staff  are  carefully  selected 
and  trained  to  become  all-round  operators  on  a  number  of 
different  machines. 

6.  The  entire  staff  is  brought  into  frequent  conferences. 
Its  members  attend  foremen's  dinners  and  discussions,  and 
are  gradually  being  educated  in  other  ways  not  only  to  become 
good  Workmen  but  also  to  be  intelligent  and  efficient  in  co- 
operating with  the  department  head  and  the  executive  foreman 
in  improving  the  technique  of  handling  operatives  in  the  de- 
partment.   Foremen's  meetings  have  been  greatly  enlarged  in 
scope  and  are  held  frequently. 

7.  The  new  foreman,  or  department  head,  is  expected  to 
spend  the  greater  part  of  his  time  and  thought  on  the  problems 
of  technical  planning  and  the  development  of  individual  em- 
ployees, thus  leaving  for  the  executive  foreman  the  carrying 
out  of  the  administrative  detail  of  the  department  according 
to  the  schedule  of  the  planning  staff. 

Functions  of  a  Foreman 

1.  Connecting  Link.    An  increase  in  staff  control  is  likely 
to  result  in  a  demand  for  better  foremen.    As  the  amount  of 
expert  advice  multiplies  and  as  standardized  methods  come 
into  more  common  use,  the  need  increases  for  leaders  on  the 
firing  line  who  can  interpret  instructions  to  the  workmen  and 
who  can  assist  staff  officers  in  collecting  the  information  upon 
which  their  work  must  be  based.     The  employment  manager 
must  get  most  of  his  knowledge  of  current  problems  within 
the  plant  from  the  foreman.    It  is  through  the  foreman,  more- 
over, that  the  employment  manager  must  work  in  order  to 
get  his  policies  introduced  into  the  plant. 

2.  Conserver  of  Men.    The  success  of  almost  any  move- 
ment intended  to  benefit  the  workman  lies  in  the  hands  of 
department  heads  and  foremen.    Illustrations  are  to  be  found 
in  the  experience  of  every  concern.     According  to  an  un- 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

published  survey  made  by  the  Harvard  Bureau  of  Vocational 
Guidance,  an  analysis  of  the  number  of  infections  occurring 
among  the  accidents  reported*  in  a  manufacturing  plant  re- 
vealed the  fact  that  infection  occurred  in  eight  cases  out  of 
every  hundred  treated  by  the  medical  department.  In  com- 
parison with  the  records  of  other  companies  where  infections 
have  been  reduced  to  a  fraction  of  one  per  cent,  this  was  an 
extremely  bad  showing.  When  causes  were  sought,  it  was 
found  that  the  foremen,  largely  because  of  their  ignorance 
of  hygienic  principles,  failed  to  back  up  the  order  issued  by 
the  superintendent  that  every  man  suffering  even  a  slight 
injury  was  to  be  sent  at  once  to  the  plant  hospital  for  first-aid 
treatment.  Instead  of  insisting  that  the  men  report  at  once 
to  the  nurse,  several  foremen  were  advising  them  to  wait  until 
noon  or  until  the  close  of  the  day  in  order  to  avoid  lost  time 
in  the  department.  An  examination  of  the  accident  cases  for 
the  same  plant  showed  that  an  abnormally  large  number 
occurred  among  employees  who  had  been  at  work  only  a 
few  hours  or  a  few  days.  The  safety  instruction  which 
should  have  been  given  the  new  employee  by  the  foremen  or 
leading  men  was  plainly  being  neglected.  In  another  plant 
the  mutual  benefit  plan  was  not  a  success  because  the  foremen, 
not  being  fully  acquainted  with  its  provisions,  were  making  no 
effort  to  encourage  employees  to  take  out  insurance. 

Here  are  clear  cases  showing  the  need  for  enlightened 
leadership,  which  not  only  energizes  the  working  force  and 
secures  teamwork  in  production,  but  which  likewise  helps  in 
promoting  every  activity  in  which  the  employees  have  a  part. 

3.  Master-Craftsman.  In  the  great  majority  of  shops  the 
foreman  must  remain  the  master-craftsman  with  reference  to 
the  technique  of  production.  He  is  still  the  planning  expert 
for  his  section  and  is  in  direct  charge  of  the  schedule  of  work. 
He  is  not  infrequently  the  inspector  of  quality  and  must  also 
have  a  large  part  in  the  education  of  new  employees  and  the 


THE  FOREMAN'S  TRAINING 

progressive  improvement  of  his  stable  group  of  workers.  If 
improvement  is  to  come,  it  must  be  sought  in  the  direction  of 
training  foremen  for  their  tasks  rather  than  by  delegating  their 
duties  to  other  individuals. 

Problem  of  Improvement 

What  is  needed  now  is  a  re-examination  of  the  foremen's 
duties  from  two  points  of  view: 

1.  What  burdens  should  be  shifted  from  his  shoulders 
to  staff  executives  or  to  the  representatives  of  a  service  or 
employment  department? 

2.  Now    that    his    functions    have    been    reduced    to    a 
minimum,  what  constitutes  good  practice  in  the  discharge  of 
his  duties  and  how  can  he  be  trained  to  perform  them  ? 

Material  for  training  purposes  will  be  found  only  by 
patient,  thorough  investigation  of  the  two  worlds  between 
which  the  foreman  stands.  He  presides  directly  over  the 
world  of  work,  the  field  of  craftsmanship,  but  he  represents 
and  interprets  to  his  men  the  world  of  administration,  the 
field  of  executive  control.  He  must  have  a  knowledge  of 
both  and  in  addition  a  broad  foundation  in  the  social  and 
psychological  principles  involved  in  dealing  with  men. 

Technical  Training — Lowell  Institute 

Only  a  few  public  or  private  institutions  have  endeavored 
to  set  up  courses  specifically  designed  for  the  training  of  fore- 
men. The  Lowell  Institute  is  a  school  for  industrial  foremen 
conducted  under  the  auspices  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology.  The  school  is  intended  to  bring  the  systematic 
study  of  applied  science  within  the  reach  of  young  men  en- 
gaged in  industrial  pursuits,  who  wish  to  prepare  themselves 
for  higher  positions  but  who  are  unable  to  attend  college 
courses  during  the  day.  Three  courses,  each  two  years  in 
length,  are  offered — mechanical,  electrical,  and  a  buildings 


198  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

course.  Instruction  is  given  by  means  of  recitations,  lectures, 
drafting-room  practice,  and  laboratory  exercises.  The  in- 
structing staff  is  composed  of*  members  of  the  faculty  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  Applicants  for  ad- 
mission must  be  at  least  18  years  of  age  and  must  pass  satis- 
factory entrance  examinations  in  arithmetic,  elementary 
algebra,  geometry,  and  mechanical  drawing.  A  preparatory 
course  for  those  who  have  not  the  proper  entrance  qualifica- 
tions is  maintained  by  the  Franklin  Union  in  Boston. 

Athough  the  courses  are  well  attended,  a  review  of  the 
subjects  offered  and  of  the  methods  in  use  shows  that  the 
instruction  is  largely  theoretical,  that  it  is  not  applied  directly 
to  the  work  done  by  students,  and  that  it  is  nothing  more  than 
a  good  foundation  in  mathematics,  applied  science,  drawing, 
and  shopwork  for  a  limited  number  of  industries. 

Carnegie  School  of  Applied  Industries  ^ 

At  the  Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology  in  Pittsburgh, 
the  School  of  Applied  Industries  offers  somewhat  similar 
preparatory  day  and  evening  classes  for  foremen.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  Lowell  Institute,  however,  instruction  is  not  applied 
to  the  diverse  interests  represented  by  the  industrial  life  of 
Pittsburgh  and  the  management  aspects  of  foremanship  are 
neglected.  These  courses  play  an  important  part  in  preparing 
for  later  promotion,  but  do  not  fill  the  need  for  specialized 
training. 

"Flying  Squadron" — Goodyear  Company 

Several  large  firms  have  made  an  effort  to  train  their 
own  foremen  on  the  technical  side  by  offering  experience  in 
several  departments  of  the  concern  to  persons  having  satis- 
factory educational  qualifications  and  good  native  ability.  The 
"flying  squadron"  plan  of  the  Goodyear  Tire  and  Rubber 
Company  of  Akron,  Ohio,  affords  an  excellent  illustration. 


THE   FOREMAN'S   TRAINING  199 

Each  squadron  is  composed  of  50  men  picked  from  the  various 
departments  of  the  company  or  especially  selected  from  new 
applicants.  After  passing  strict  physical  and  mental  examina- 
tions they  sign  an  agreement  to  pursue  a  three-year  course 
which  leads  to  the  degree  of  Master  Rubber  Worker.  Classes 
meet  for  two  hours  once  each  week,  for  forty  weeks  each 
year.  Part  of  the  instruction  is  offered  to  small  groups  but 
as  a  rule  from  50  to  200  men  meet  for  lectures  and  discussions. 
Atpresent  there  are  three  different  kinds  of  squadrons  fitting 
men  for  production,  engineering,  and  inspection. 

The  production  squadron  allows  each  man  during  the  three- 
year  course  opportunity  to  work  in  every  production  depart- 
ment and  in  addition  to  attend  school  six  hours  each  week. 
He  studies  English,  arithmetic,  economics,  organization  and 
management,  and  rubber  manufacturing  practice.  Optional 
courses  are  offered  in  mechanical  drawing,  Spanish,  and 
modern  business  methods. 

The  engineering  department  squadrons  are  organized  in 
the  same  way  save  that  the  men  are  recruited  from  the 
machine-shops  and  the  engineering  departments  and  the  school 
work  given  them  embraces  shop  mathematics,  mechanical 
drawing,  and  the  principles  of  mechanics. 

An  inspector  in  the  Goodyear  Company  is  an  executive 
officer  having  charge  of  a  small  group  of  workmen.  In  many 
respects  his  functions  are  really  those  of  a  foreman  or  sub- 
foreman.  Inspectors  enrolled  in  the  flying  squadrons  study 
the  following  topics:  mathematics,  business  English  (includ- 
ing Goodyear  standard  practice  in  correspondence),  rubber 
manufacture,  charts  and  reports,  department  routine,  depart- 
ment operation,  costs,  and  mechanical  drawing. 

Goodyear  Special  Training  Course 

In  the  same  plant  a  special  training  class  is  maintained 
which  in  March,  1919,  enrolled  some  350  foremen.  The  class 


200  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

meets  for  one  hour,  from  4  to  5  P.M.  on  Mondays,  Wednes- 
days, and  Fridays.  Three  sections  are  made,  consisting 
respectively  of  college  graduates,  high  school  students,  and 
those  having  a  grammar  school  education  or  less.  No  use  is 
made  of  these  divisions  except  for  purposes  of  assigning 
problems  and  giving  examinations.  The  entire  group  listens 
to  the  same  lectures.  In  addition  to  the  foremen,  division 
heads,  executives  from  staff  departments,  and  junior  execu- 
tives of  the  organization  may  attend.  Lectures  are  given  by 
practical  men  from  the  several  departments,  in  which  they 
outline  the  work  done  under  their  supervision.  Experts  who 
lecture  on  various  technical  subjects  are  brought  in  from  the 
outside  at  the  expense  of  the  education  department.  The  fol- 
lowing outline  shows  the  work  as  laid  out  for  a  two-year 
course. 

COURSE  IN  PRODUCTION  FOR  FOREMEN 

FIRST  YEAR 

Department  Management  Mathematics 

1.  Charts  I.  Arithmetic 

2.  Reports  2.  Algebra     (special     class 

3.  Department  operation  Tuesday  and  Thursday) 

3.  Trigonometry 

4.  Calculus 

Materials  Weekly  Lectures 

1.  Crude  rubber  I.  By     best     business     talent 

2.  Cotton  available    (series  of  six 

3.  Compounding  materials  lectures  on  personnel  by 

man  from  labor  depart- 
ment) 

Library  Recreation 

1.  Book  reviews  I.  Gymnasium 

2.  Reading  courses  2.  Games 

3.  Current  events  3.  Pow-wow 


THE   FORM  AN 'S    TRAINING  2OI 

Guidance 

1.  Consultation 

2.  Development  records 

SECOND  YEAR 

Manufacture  Library 

1.  History  of  manufacture  I.  Book  reviews 

2.  General  processes  2.  Reading  courses 

3.  Products  3.  Current  events 

Recreation  Organization 

1.  Gymnasium  I.  Analysis,  supervision 

2.  Games  2.  Functions  of  manager  and 

3.  Pow-wow  subexecutives 

3.  Human  factors 

4.  Initiative  and  advancement 

Costs  '  Guidance 

1.  Fundamentals  i.  Consultation 

2.  Details  2.  Development  records 

Firestone  Training  Class 

At  the  Firestone  Tire  and  Rubber  Company  a  number  of 
college  men  are  enrolled  in  an  executives'  training  class.  The 
course  lasts  for  a  period  of  eight  months.  Each  member  of 
the  class  studies  the  operations  involved  in  manufacture  be- 
ginning with  the  treatment  of  crude  rubber.  Upon  his  com- 
pletion of  the  work  in  any  department,  he  is  given  a  written 
examination  on  what  he  has  done,  a  feature  of  which  is  that 
he  is  required  to  set  down  his  suggestions  in  regard  to  the 
management  of  the  department,  stating  in  detail  what  changes 
he  would  make  if  he  were  given  the  opportunity  to  supervise 
it.  The  group  meets  once  each  week  for  a  discussion  of  the 
work  in  which  they  are  engaged  and  for  theoretical  discussions 
of  the  rubber  business.  It  is  expected  that  students  will  absorb 
the  policies  of  the  company  through  contact  with  the  execu- 
tives. Very  little  attention  is  given,  therefore,  to  this  topic 
in  formal  lectures  or  class  exercises. 


202  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

Packard  Service  School 

The  Packard  Motor  Car  Company  of  Detroit  has  planned 
courses  for  training  technical  men,  assistant  technical  men 
or  department  foremen,  which  are  conducted  by  the  service 
school  under  the  control  of  their  technical  service  department. 
Classes  and  lectures  are  conducted  by  a  supervisor  of  instruc- 
tion and  students  are  assigned  to  various  factory  departments 
for  practical  experience  that  must  be  gained  by  immediate  con- 
tact with  the  shop.  For  the  six  months'  course,  some  one  of 
the  following  qualifications  is  necessary : 

1.  Mechanical  engineer  with  automobile  experience. 

2.  Technical  man,  service  man,  or  mechanic  with  one  or 

more  years'  experience  directing,  supervising,  or 
otherwise  handling  general  car  service  or  truck 
service  or  both. 

3.  Mechanic   with  two    or  more   years'    experience   on 

Packard  cars  and  trucks,  and  machine-shop  ex- 
perience. 

4.  Man  with  business  experience  and  two  or  more  years' 

general  motor  car  mechanical  experience. 

A  longer  course  is  offered  for  men  who  have  had  con- 
siderable mechanical  experience  and  only  slight  supervisory 
experience  or  who  have  had  a  substantial  business  experience 
but  only  slight  mechanical  and  technical  experience.  The  re- 
quirements for  the  one-year  course  are  as  follows : 

1.  Mechanical  engineer  with  no  automobile  experience. 

2.  Mechanic   with   one   or  more   years'    experience    on 

Packard  cars  and  trucks. 

3.  Man  with  business  experience  and  one  or  more  years' 

experience  on  cars  and  trucks. 

4.  Man  with  experience  in  factory  work  and  business 

experience  in  addition. 


THE  FOREMAN'S  TRAINING  203 

The  Foremen's  Meeting 

It  is  apparent  that  the  courses  outlined  above  lay  stress 
upon  the  technical  aspect  of  the  foreman's  work  to  the  neglect 
of  other  significant  duties.  Several  plans  have  been  devised 
to  meet  this  specific  need.  One  of  the  simplest  of  these  is 
the  foremen's  meeting.  Some  of  the  questions  which  may 
arise  in  a  foremen's  meeting  are  discussed  in  Chapter  XVII. 
Safety,  wages,  labor  turnover,  the  employees'  benefit  associa- 
tion, recreation — in  fact  any  of  the  practical  questions  con- 
fronting the  employment  or  instruction  departments  may  well 
be  brought  up  at  the  foremen's  meeting  with  two  points  in 
view;  first,  to  get  the  contribution  of  the  individual  foremen 
to  the  solution  of  problems,  and  second,  to  inform  them  fully 
as  to  the  best  procedure  in  regulating  their  own  action  with 
respect  to  the  matter  under  consideration. 

The  inauguration  of  an  employment  department  or  of  an 
educational  program  may  necessitate  bringing  the  foremen 
together  for  a  special  series  of  conferences  and  discussions. 
Thus  in  New  Jersey  two  companies  co-operated  with  the  state 
board  of  education  just  before  the  armistice  was  signed  in 
giving  instruction  to  their  foremen  with  regard  to  the  plans 
and  methods  to  be  used  in  the  new  departments  being  installed 
under  government  supervision  for  the  training  of  their  em- 
ployees. 

Questions   for   Foremen's   Meeting 

The  foremen's  meeting  can  be  made  much  more  valuable 
by  giving  to  each  man  an  outline  of  the  material  to  be 
presented  and  of  the  questions  to  be  raised  for  discussion, 
several  days  before  the  meeting  is  called.  The  following  out- 
line taken  from  the  Dennison  Manufacturing  Company's 
records  includes  the  questions  raised  at  one  of  their  foremen's 
meetings. 


204  TRAINING  INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

V 

QUESTIONS  FOR  FOREMEN'S  MEETING, 
THURSDAY  EVENING,  AUGUST  2 

'  ^* 

1.  What  should  be  done  with  the  employee  who  is  valuable  on  his 

job  but  who  is  a  habitual  drinker? 

2.  What  should  be  done  with  the  employee  who,  is  unsteady  and 

who  never  explains  absence  until  he  returns  ? 

3.  How  should  an  employee  be  approached  when  it  is  necessary  to 

have  him  work  on  other  than  his  regular  work,  whether  in 
his  own  or  another  department?  Should  the  employee  be 
informed  how  long  he  will  be  on  the  new  work  and  what  his 
wages  will  be? 

4.  On  what  will  an  employee's  rate  of  wages  in  a  new  position 

depend  ? 

5.  What  action  should  foremen  take  when  approached  by  an  em- 

ployee regarding  some  general  condition  under  which  he  is 
working,  that  is,  heat,  light,  ventilation,  etc.? 

6.  How  should  foremen  handle  requests  for  pay  increases? 

7.  When  an  employee  is  absent  on  account  of  sickness  or  accident, 

and  the  foreman  finds  that  the  employee  temporarily  placed 
on  the  job  of  the  absent  employee  is  superior  to  the  regular 
man,  should  the  regular  employee  be  reinstated  when  he  is 
ready  to  resume  work? 

8.  Should  an  employee  ever  be  reprimanded  in  public  for  breaking 

a  rule  or  committing  an  error? 

9.  If  an  employee  is  not  put  on  the  job  for  which  he  is  hired  but 

there  is  other  work  available  in  the  department,  what  should 
be  the  procedure? 

10.  When  an  employee  asks  to  have  his  work  changed  for  the  sake 

of  his  health,  what  should  be  the  procedure? 

11.  Is  it  advisable  ever  to  change  employees  to  jobs  they  don't  like 

merely  for  discipline? 

12.  When  an  employee  is  held  on  timework  pending  the  determination 

of  hew  piece  rates,  should  any  changes  be  made  in  the  time 
rates  if  there  should  be  unusual  delay  in  installing  piece  rates? 

13.  Is  it  ever  advisable  to  offer  an  employee  who  has  given  his 

notice  more  money  to  stay? 

14.  What  can  you  suggest  to  us  that  will  assist  foremen  in  becoming 

more  efficient  on  their  jobs,  especially  with  reference  to 
handling  personnel  problems? 


THE  FOREMAN'S  TRAINING  205 

"Progress  Clubs" — Montgomery  Ward  and  Company 

The  foremen's  meeting  has  been  carried  a  step  further  by 
Montgomery  Ward  and  Company  of  Chicago,  who  have  or- 
ganized "Progress  Clubs"  in  which  are  enrolled  various  groups 
of  executive  officers.  Each  group  meets  at  4:45  P.M.  once  a 
week  for  discussion  of  a  variety  of  company  matters. 
Luncheon  is  served  at  the  nominal  cost  of  25  cents.  A  schedule 
of  topics  is  made  out  which  determines  the  nature  of  the 
discussions  for  a  period  of  two  or  three  months.  At  the 
end  of  that  time  a  new  schedule  is  made  out  and  a  new  set 
of  subjects  taken  up.  The  material  is  presented  in  part  by 
members  of  the  firm  and  in  part  by  outside  speakers.  Both 
men  and  women  attend  these  meetings,  the  purpose  of  the 
club  being  to  promote  general  interest  in  management  prob- 
lems. 

Dennison  Company  Plan 

The  most  effective .  work  in  training  foremen  or  depart- 
ment heads  is  probably  being  done  by  concerns  that  have 
definitely  organized  training  courses  which  emphasize  instruc- 
tional and  management  questions.  The  Dennison  Manufac- 
turing Company  of  Framingham,  Massachusetts,  above  referred 
to,  gave  a  series  of  lessons  for  foremen  in  1917-18,  which 
dealt  with  a  wide  range  of  organization  and  production  topics. 
Among  the  subjects  were  "Locating  the  Industry,"  "Purchas- 
ing Materials,"  "The  Meaning  of  Scientific  Management," 
"Stores  Methods,"  "Forms  of  Organization,"  "Machinery  and 
Equipment,"  "Employment  and  Personnel  Problems."  The 
majority  of  the  meetings  were  led  by  representatives  from  the 
company's  regular  staff.  Part  of  the  data  in  this  connection 
is  taken  from  an  unpublished  address  by  P.  J.  Reilly,  formerly 
Employment  Manager  of  the  Dennison  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany. 


206  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

Advance  Preparation 

The  plan  was  to  devote  each  evening  to  some  one  definite 
topic.  A  paper  of  thirty  minutes*' duration  was  read  and  this 
was  followed  by  a  discussion.  During  the  week  before  the 
paper  was  read,  a  selected  reading  assignment  was  prepared 
by  the  one  who  was  to  give  the  paper,  printed  in  the  shop, 
and  distributed  to  the  foremen.  For  example,  in  the  discus- 
sion of  "Personnel  and  Employment  Problems,"  printed 
material  was  assigned  taken  largely  from  the  May,  1916, 
Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social 
Science.  As  each  foreman  had  read  this  before  he  came  to 
the  class  he  was  much  better  prepared  for  consideration  and 
discussion  of  the  principles  to  be  presented  than  would  other- 
wise have  been  possible. 

This  session  was  in  charge  of  the  employment  manager, 
who  illustrated  his  talk  from  problems  which  had  arisen  in 
his  daily  contact  with  the  foremen.  After  a  general  discus- 
sion, the  group  of  fifty  foremen  broke  into  six  groups  of 
eight  each  and  went  into  the  committee  room  for  round-table 
discussions  of  problems.  These  problems  were  put  in  the 
form  of  specific  questions ;  the  foremen  considered  the  question 
from  the  point  of  view  of  what  would  be  the  wise,  fair, 
human  thing  to  do  in  each  particular  case. 

Homework 

In  addition  to  the  round-table  discussions  of  the  course, 
the  foremen  were  given  problems  to  take  home  and  solve. 
The  following  is  an  example  of  the  sort  of  problem  proposed . 

The  transfer  of  an  employee  from  one  position  to  another  some- 
times brings  up  questions  as  to  whether  certain  transfers  should  be 
made.  Consider  the  following  points: 

I.  Would  you  transfer  a  new  employee  from  his  first  position, 
on  his  request,  if  the  department  had  reported  that  his  work  and 
attitude  were  not  satisfactory? 


THE   FOREMAN'S   TRAINING  2O/ 

2.  Would  you  transfer  a  satisfactory  employee  in  certain  work 
if  she  decides  that  she  would  like  to  try  some  other  work  to  get  a 
change?    (This  occurs  more  often  in  case  of  women.) 

3.  Would  yoia  transfer  to  other  work,  at  his  request,  an  employee 
who  feels  that  he  will  never  be  contented  in  a  certain  department? 

Fifty  men,  taking  a  very  practical  problem  of  that  sort 
under  advisement  and  writing  a  paper  about  it,  are  bound  to  in- 
dictate  to  the  personnel  management  their  precise  reactions  and 
attitudes  toward  the  matter.  As  a  result,  the  situations  in  the 
organization  demanding  careful  treatment  will  almost  in- 
variably be  revealed.  In  the  case  referred  to  the  results  of 
the  homework  and  the  response  to  these  questions  were  very 
helpful  to  the  personnel  manager.  Certain  foremen,  in  the 
minority,  were  quite  radical,  and  discussions  showed  their 
attitude.  To  show  them  a  better  way  and  to  justify  them 
in  changing  their  point  of  view  was  a  task  much  more  easily 
brought  about  when  the  opinions  of  the  majority  of  foremen 
were  shown  to  agree  on  the  solution  of  a  particular  problem. 

The  sessions  of  this  class  also  helped  to  a  material  extent 
to  get  principles  accepted  that  would  otherwise  have  been  dif- 
ficult to  have  put  into  practice  in  a  specific  case.  For  example, 
when  a  foreman  wants  an  employee  discharged  or  transferred, 
he  often  cannot  see  the  principle  involved;  he  can  see  the 
principle  in  the  abstract  better  than  in  the  case  of  the  in- 
dividual with  whom  he  is  immediately  concerned. 

The  following  year  the  same  group  of  foremen  were 
brought  into  a  class  to  discuss  with  a  representative  of  the 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education  the  best  methods  of 
training  employees. 

Training  Supervisors — Montgomery  Ward  and  Company 

Montgomery  Ward  and  Company,  already  mentioned, 
have  organized  a  successful  training  plan  for  their  supervisors. 
In  this  concern  the  supervisor  has  charge  of  a  small  group 


208  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

of  persons,  the  groups  varying  in  size  from  six  to  twenty 
people.  Formerly  instruction  of  supervisors  was  given  wholly 
by  department  superintendents,  but  it  was  found  that  this  plan 
did  not  result  in  the  development  of  co-operation  nor  the 
elimination  of  errors  or  sources  of  complaint.  An  analysis 
of  the  causes  of  leaving  showed  that  the  majority  were  due 
to  very  bad  supervision.  To  correct  this  condition  an  in- 
tensive course  of  twelve  lessons,  each  two  hours  in  length, 
has  been  inaugurated. 

The  backbone  of  the  instruction  consists  of  a  series  of 
lectures  and  discussions  which  follow  a  mail  order  from  the 
receipt  of  the  letter  to  the  placing  of  the  goods  in  the  car 
for  shipment.  Some  attention  is  given  to  the  aims  and 
methods  of  the  employment  and  instruction  departments  and 
the  best  technique  to  be  followed  in  handling  employees.  In 
addition  to  a  rating  on  performance  in  the  class,  each  super- 
visor is  given  a  mental  examination  and  a  grade  determined 
by  the  number  of  errors  and  complaints  arising  from  the 
work  under  his  supervision.  A  final  rating  is  then  given 
which  classifies  the  supervisor  as  good,  fair,  poor,  or  slated 
for  elimination.  Those  who  are  rated  fair  or  poor  are  given 
special  assistance  for  a  time.  If  they  do  not  improve,  they 
are  transferred  to  some  other  department  or  eliminated. 

A  small  group  of  college  girls  has  been  employed  with  the 
plan  of  having  them  spend  a  short  time  in  each  department 
over  a  period  of  about  six  months.  At  the  same  time  they 
take  the  instruction  given  in  the  course  for  supervisors.  There 
is  also  a  group  of  college  men  who  spend  from  three  weeks 
to  six  months  doing  similar  work.  Each  member  of  this 
group  is  subjected  to  individual  study  by  the  instruction  de- 
partment and  final  placement  depends  upon  the  opinion  of 
the  employment  and  instruction  authorities.  The  majority  of 
the  supervisors  in  the  concern  are  not  high  school  graduates. 
It  is  the  intention  to  give  more  thought  in  the  future  to  the 


THE   FOREMAN  S    TRAINING  209 

selection  of  supervisors  on  the  basis  of  their  ability  to  deal 
with  personnel  questions,  and  this  implies  raising  educational 
standards. 

Rotating  Foremen 

The  Dennison  Manufacturing  Company  has  a  third  feature 
in  its  work  with  foremen.  This  is  a  plan,  which  was  put  into 
effect  in  March,  1919,  of  rotating  foremen  through  some  of 
the  staff  departments,  assigning  foremen  and  department 
heads  to  the  employment  department,  for  example,  for  a  period 
of  three  months.  As  an  experimental  beginning,  the  head 
of  an  important  operating  department  was  relieved  of  all 
other  responsibility  and  appointed  as  temporary  assistant  to 
the  employment  manager.  At  the  same  time  a  research  man 
was  added  to  the  staff  and  it  was  arranged  that  he  should 
spend  the  major  part  of  his  time  in  the  operating  department. 
It  was  felt  that  by  this  means  it  was  possible  to  do  more  to 
educate  these  executives  in  principles  of  wise  personnel  man- 
'agement  than  could  be  accomplished  in  any  other  way  in  two 
or  three  years.  This  plan  is  working  out  very  satisfactorily. 

The  same  plan  could  very  well  be  applied  in  other  depart- 
ments. Men  who  have  mechanical  talent  could  spend  some 
time  with  the  master  mechanic,  gaining  his  specialized  staff 
point  of  view.  Others  might  well  be  assigned  to  work  in  the 
planning  department  or  in  making  time  studies. 

One  of  the  appreciable  by-products  of  the  rotation  plan 
is  the  reaction  which  the  men  from  operating  departments  are 
likely  to  have  upon  staff  employees.  They  bring  a  different 
point  of  view  and  a  fund  of  practical  information  which  these 
persons  cannot  always  command. 

Groups  Requiring  Training 

It  is  apparent  from  an  examination  of  the  courses  outlined 
above  and  from  a  study  of  the  work  being  done  in  several 


210  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

plants  that  successful  training  of  foremen  in  the  future  will 
be  based  upon  a  patient,  thorough-going  investigation  of  condi- 
tions within  the  concern.  Two,*groups  require  training: 

1.  The  inexperienced  though  possibly  technically  trained 
man,  or  the  man  from  another  line  of  industry,  who  must 
be    taught    the    fundamentals    involved    in    manufacturing 
processes.     Courses  somewhat  similar  to  those  designed  by 
the  Packard  Motor  Car  Company  or  the  Goodyear  Tire  and 
Rubber  Company  are  essential.     The  student  requires  brief 
experience  in  several  departments  and  a  longer  experience 
in  some  one  department  so  that  he  can  depend  upon  his  own 
experience  to  furnish  the  information  necessary  to  efficient 
management. 

2.  The  foreman  already  in  service,  who  must  be  taught 
to  co-operate  with  his   fellow  foremen  and  with  staff  and 
line  executives.     For  this  group  some  emphasis  needs  to  be 
laid  upon  production  methods,  upon  company  organization, 
department  records  and  reports,  and  the  planning  of  the  day's 
work,  but  the  crying  need  is  for  special  instruction  in  methods 
of  training  employees  and  in  furthering  the  purposes  of  the 
planning,  employment,  and  training  departments. 

Preparing  Materials  for  Training 

For  both  groups  the  materials  provided  by  time  study 
and  job  analysis  will  yield  information  regarding  the  super- 
vision of  machines  and  processes,  the  rearrangement  of  tasks 
for  teaching  purposes,  the  quality  of  output,  and  safety  in- 
spection. As  suggested  in  another  chapter,  the  uses  of  job 
analysis  in  improving  layout,  in  the  choice  and  modifications 
of  machinery,  in  scheduling,  cost  accounting,  the  selection  of 
workmen,  wage-setting,  and  the  training  of  men  and  foremen 
have  just  begun  to  be  appreciated  by  the  industrial  world. 

Materials  for  the  teaching  of  administration  and  organiza- 
tion will  arise  out  of  the  formulation  of  standard  practice. 


THE  FOREMAN'S  TRAINING  211 

Once  the  scope  of  authority  and  responsibility  of  officers,  the 
exact  nature  of  recording  and  accounting  processes,  the  func- 
tion of  service  departments,  and  the  general  policies  of  the 
business  have  been  reduced  to  writing,  there  is  in  readiness 
a  complete  text-book  by  means  of  which  definite,  applied 
instruction  can  be  given  to  executives  of  every  grade. 

The  medical  department  and  the  safety  and  compensation 
officers  should  prove  a  mine  of  information  on  occupational 
diseases,  personal  hygiene,  and  accident  prevention.  It  must 
be  noted,  however,  that  before  the  foremen  can  use  the  data 
a  thorough  reorganization  and  re-expression  in  teaching  terms 
are  always  required. 

In  addition  to  these  three  main  resources,  the  instructor 
in  the  duties  of  a  foreman  will  naturally  draw  from  outside 
sources  supplementary  material  on  the  general  underlying  prin- 
ciples of  administration  as  well  as  on  such  topics  as  the 
functions  of  capital  and  executive  control  in  production,  the 
psychology  of  the  learning  process,  the  adaptation  of  the  task 
to  the  instincts  of  the  worker,  the  philosophy  of  personal  tact 
and  efficiency,  and  the  value  of  shop  morale  and  business 
ethics.  The  following  outline  is  suggested  as  including  the 
topics  which  ought  to  be  touched  upon  after  the  foreman  has 
become  familiar  with  the  general  processes  of  manufacture. 

OUTLINE  OF  TRAINING  COURSE 

1.  Plant,  machinery,  equipment,  materials,  and  processes  or 

operations:  Plant  layout;  power;  purchasing;  receiving 
and  distributing  materials;  the  shipping  department; 
stockkeeping ;  routing;  classification  of  processes  or 
operations;  standards  of  output;  maintenance  or  up- 
keep of  department. 

2.  Company  organisation  and  policies:    Functions  of  execu- 

tives and  relations  between  departments;  special  ad- 
ministrative problems  affecting  foremen;  history  and 
policies  of  the  company. 


212  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

3.  Planning    the    day's    work:     Scheduling    and    routing; 

elimination  of  waste  in  materials,  idle  machinery,  and 
unnecessary  labor;  fatigue;  time  study;  aims  and 
methods  of  the  planning  department;  interdepartmental 
co-operation ;  teamwork. 

4.  Production   records   and   reports:    Cost   accounting;    in- 

ventories; methods  of  distributing  overhead;  requisi- 
tions; job  and  pay  tickets;  reducing  waste;  technique 
of  making  and  filing  reports;  use  and  methods  of  pre- 
paring special  reports. 

5.  Employment  and  service  management:  Aims  and  methods 

of  the  employment  department;  interpretation  of  sta- 
tistics of  accidents,  infections,  lost  time,  labor  turnover, 
absenteeism,  etc.;  proper  attitude  toward  promotions, 
transfers,  discharge,  and  discipline;  wages  and  hours 
of  labor;  stimulating  individuals  and  groups  to  better 
accomplishment;  tact  in  handling  employees;  hygiene; 
plant  sanitation;  home  and  community  problems  affect- 
ing the  shop;  job  specifications;  rating  employees. 

6.  Training  employees:   Job  analysis  for  training  purposes; 

steps  in  the  learning  process;  co-operation  with  the 
plant  educational  director  and  with  community  institu- 
tions; what  training  has  accomplished  in  other  plants 
or  other  departments ;  developing  esprit  de  corps. 

Special  Training  Methods 

A  foreman's  class,  like  a  class  for  minor  executives,  ought 
to  depend  very  largely  for  its  content  upon  the  specific  prob- 
lems arising  out  of  the  daily  task.  Lecturing  to  foremen  in 
large  groups  cannot  possibly  accomplish  the  ends  sought  by 
the  courses  which  are  now  being  organized.  The  Dennison 
Manufacturing  Company  found  that  its  second  course  for 
foremen,  designed  to  teach  something  of  instruction  methods, 
failed  because  the  class  leader  had  no  first-hand  knowledge 
of  the  instruction  problems  arising  in  this  particular  company. 
Montgomery  Ward  and  Company,  on  the  other  hand,  found 
their  course  highly  successful  because  the  instruction  was  built 


THE   FOREMAN'S   TRAINING  21$ 

almost  wholly  about  the  difficulties  encountered  by  the  super- 
visors in  their  own  departments. 

The  function  of  any  outside  educational  institution  thus 
appears  to  be  confined  to  two  principal  channels: 

1.  The  training  of  instruction  directors  who  will  appre- 

ciate what  is  involved  in  the  training  of  a  foreman 
and  can  then  build  up  from  within  their  own  or- 
ganization the  materials  necessary  to  effective  train- 
ing. 

2.  Staff  advice  to  enable  concerns  to  develop  courses 

of  their  own  and  to  organize  their  materials  for 
teaching  purposes. 

These  two  functions,  however,  imply  a  third  which  con- 
sists in  the  formulation  of  the  best  principles  of  management 
and  in  collecting  from  plants  throughout  the  country  the  best 
available  examples  of  the  control  of  materials,  machinery,  and 
men  as  related  to  the  foreman's  realm. 

A  thorough  job  analysis  must  usually  precede  any  effective 
individual  work  with  foremen.  In  most  companies  there  are 
foremen  in  charge  of  key  departments  with  only  a  few 
workers,  who  could  not  hold  their  positions  without  a  great 
deal  of  technical  knowledge  or  trade  ability.  Other  foremen 
in  equally  important  assignments  ought  to  have  superior  ability 
in  the  management  of  help  but  need  have  very  little  of  the 
trade  skill  or  specialized  knowledge  required  of  operatives. 

Job  analyses  and  foremen's  training  prepare  the  way  for 
a  fairer  and  more  complete  appraisal  of  a  foreman's  value 
to  the  concern.  The  subject  of  rating  foremen  is  treated  in 
Chapter  XV. 

A  course  for  foremen  or  a  series  of  foremen's  meetings 
may  profitably  give  attention  to  preparing  or  revising  a  fore- 
man's standard  instruction  book.  It  should  contain  a  clear 
statement  of  company  rules  and  general  policies  on  all  im- 


214  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

portant  matters  coming  directly  under  the  foreman's  charge 
or  upon  which  he  must  make  decisions.  Such  books  are 
usually  prepared  in  loose-leaf  /form,  so  that  new  regulations 
can  be  prepared  on  single  sheets  to  be  sent  to  each  foreman 
for  insertion  in  his  copy.  This  plan  interests  foremen  because 
it  gives  them  a  share  in  determining  management  policies. 

Present  Tendency  and  Prospect 

With  the  extension  of  scientific  management  and  the  in- 
stallation of  staff  executives,  there  has  been  a  marked  tendency 
to  limit  the  scope  of  the  foreman's  duties,  or  to  distribute 
them  among  several  specialists.  The  foreman  has  only  re- 
cently been  asked  to  relinquish  responsibility  for  the  selection, 
training,  promotion,  discipline,  and  discharge  of  employees. 
Because  he  is  in  constant  contact  with  employees,  and  because 
in  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  impracticable  to  completely  func- 
tionalize  discipline,  training,  and  other  personnel  matters,  the 
foreman's  position  remains  one  of  extreme  importance. 
Neither  employment  management  nor  industrial  training  can 
succeed  without  his  intelligent  co-operation,  and  this  cannot 
be  secured  unless  he  is  educated  into  a  sympathetic  appreciation 
of  the  need  for  improvements.  The  technical  and  mechanical 
side  of  the  foreman's  training  has  already  received  attention 
in  several  educational  institutions  and  private  corporations, 
but  no  fully  satisfactory  technique  has  been  evolved  for  giving 
instruction  in  the  human  engineering  aspects  of  his  task. 
Training  in  these  duties  of  the  foreman  must  be  given  on  a 
part-time  basis,  preferably  in  the  plant.  The  work  is  of 
sufficient  importance  to  rank  with  training  employment  man- 
agers and  directors  and  instructors  for  industrial  education. 
It  should  receive  state  and  federal  support  and  ought  to  be 
made  the  subject  of  immediate  research  by  colleges  and  tech- 
nical institutions. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  IN  SCHOOL  AND  IN 
INDUSTRY 

Choosing  a  Vocation 

There  are  relatively  few  modern  elements  in  the  problems 
of  choosing  a  vocation  or  of  making  progress  in  a  chosen 
field.  People  have  always  wrestled  with  these  questions  and 
have  sought  for  information  or  counsel  wherever  it  could 
be  found.  Some  advice  was  always  to  be  had,  all  of  it  only 
too  willingly  offered,  part  of  it  good,  much  of  it  based  on 
false  or  hasty  judgments.  The  new  aspects  of  vocational 
guidance  appear  on  the  one  hand  in  the  increasing  diversity 
of  occupations,  making  it  more  and  more  difficult  to  choose 
a  calling  or  to  secure  advantageous  promotions  or  readjust- 
ments. On  the  other  hand,  they  appear  in  organized  efforts 
made  by  both  school  and  industry  to  assist  the  individual  in 
so  analyzing  his  personal  capital  as  to  make  the  best  use  of 
it  in  socially  productive  ways. 

Effective  Vocational  Guidance 

Constant  emphasis  needs  to  be  placed  upon  the  statement 
that  effective  vocational  guidance  must  be  a  personal,  progres- 
sive matter,  taking  account  of  individual  development  and 
changing  interests  over  a  period  of  years.  True  guidance 
can  come  about  only  through  a  continuous  adaptation  of  life 
in  the  school,  in  industry,  and  at  home,  designed  to  help  the 
boy  or  girl  discover  his  own  abilities  and  limitations  and 
adjust  his  vocational  plans  accordingly.  The  time  has  not 
yet  come,  and  apparently  never  will,  when  one  or  two  hours 

215 


2l6  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

with  a  counselor,  who  brings  to  bear  his  knowledge  of  human 
traits  and  occupational  demands  and  uses  some  standardized 
system  of  tests,  can  be  depended  upon  as  the  principal  basis 
for  the  choice  of  a  calling.  All  of  these  things  are  helpful, 
but  they  must  be  supplemented  by  directed  activities  on  the 
part  of  the  child  as  well  as  by  systematic  observation  on  the 
part  of  teachers,  counselors,  and  parents,  both  continuing  over 
a  period  of  years. 

Extending  the  Vocational  Horizon 

Without  in  any  sense  neglecting  the  aims  of  general  cul- 
ture, educational  institutions  could  greatly  improve  the  ways 
and  means  which  they  now  offer  for  acquaintance  with  the 
practical  world.  There  are  almost  endless  possibilities  in  the 
present  school  program  for  the  incidental  introduction  of 
activities  which  help  the  pupil  to  test  himself  or  to  broaden 
his  vocational  horizon.  Among  them  are  the  teaching  of 
community  civics,  emphasis  upon  the  vocational  aspects  of 
science,  history,  geography,  economics,  drawing,  and  mathe- 
matics, English  compositions  on  vocational  topics,  practical 
experience  in  shopwork,  in  domestic  science,  and  in  arts  and 
crafts,  the  boy  scout  and  camp  fire  girl  movements,  participa- 
tion in  debating,  or  athletics,  and  the  management  of  publica- 
tions and  other  school  enterprises. 

Principals  have  found  that  finding  permanent  or  part-time 
employment  for  their  students,  with  subsequent  follow-up  of 
the  young  worker,  is  not  only  a  gain  to  the  student,  but  is 
also  very  helpful  to  employers.  Furthermore,  undertaking 
work  of  this  kind  reacts  in  a  favorable  way  upon  the  policies  of 
the  school  which  govern  preparation  for  higher  institutions. 

Need  of  Vocational  Literature 

One  of  the  chief  needs  at  present  is  for  more  of  the  right 
kind  of  reading  on  vocational  subjects  to  place  in  the  hands 


VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  217 

of  students  or  young  persons  endeavoring  to  choose  an  occupa- 
tion.1 This  applies  not  only  to  workers  just  entering  a  trade, 
but  to  older  persons  who  desire  to  better  themselves  or  to 
enter  another  line. 

During  the  war,  for  example,  the  United  States  govern- 
ment needed  thousands  of  trained  workers  for  the  ship- 
yards. No  literature  was  available  to  which  the  man  engaged 
in  a  trade  or  the  school  or  college  graduate  could  turn  for 
information  as  to  where  he  might  best  fit  into  the  shipbuilding 
industry.  There  was  nothing  in  print  that  described  the 
several  operations  of  ship  construction  in  a  simple,  accurate 
manner ;  that  listed  the  typical  trades  represented ;  that  pointed 
out  the  opportunities  and  avenues  for  advancement,  the  hours 
of  work,  and  the  rates  of  pay;  or  that  would  help  a  man  in 
a  given  mechanical  trade  to  decide  whether  his  experience 
would  be  useful  in  a  shipyard. 

Here  is  a  field  in  which  the  school  and  industry  ought  to 
co-operate  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  has  yet  been  at- 
tempted. Relatively  few  books  of  permanent  value  are  avail- 
able for  school  use  and  industry  has  contributed  practically 
nothing  for  the  guidance  of  its  workers.  A  few  job  descrip- 
tions or  specifications  have  been  written  and  here  and  there 
an  enterprising  company  has  prepared  descriptive  literature 
regarding  its  work  in  the  hope  of  attracting  applicants  or 
stimulating  employees  to  prepare  for  promotion,  but  almost 
nothing  has  been  done  by  way  of  presenting  concrete,  interest- 
ing material  which  critically  analyzes  the  requirements  of 
occupations  in  the  light  of  mental,  physical,  and  temperamental 
fitness. 

"Life-Career"  Classes 

One  of  the  most  significant  phases  of  the  guidance  move- 


1  For  a  list  of  such  publications,  see  Brewer  and  Kelly,  "A  Critical  Bibliography 
of    Vocational    Guidance,"    Harvard    University    Press,    1917. 


218  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

ment  has  taken  the  form  of  "life-career"  classes  for  students 
in  the  intermediate  grades  and  in  secondary  schools.  In  these 
classes,  pupils  undertake  a  systematic  study  of  vocations: 
the  conditions  of  employment  for  young  workers;  kinds  of 
work  to  avoid;  opportunities  for  continuing  one's  general 
education  after  entering  upon  employment;  the  necessary 
training  and  qualifications  for  the  broad  general  fields  of 
employment;  surveys  of  typical  industrial,  commercial,  and 
professional  occupations;  and  other  matters  affecting  the 
choice  of  a  vocation  or  successful  entrance  upon  work.  Where 
the  life-career  class  cannot  be  provided,  instruction  of  this 
nature  is  often  introduced  in  connection  with  the  usual  school 
subjects. 

Guidance  Department  Necessary 

Experience  in  several  cities  has  demonstrated  that  voca- 
tional guidance  cannot  successfully  be  carried  bn  by  a  school 
system  or  an  educational  institution  without  trained  leadership 
and  specialized  departments  established  for  this  purpose.  The 
functions  of  a  vocational  guidance  department  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows: 

1.  To  make  surveys  of  local  social  and  industrial  condi- 

tions and  educational  opportunities. 

2.  To  summarize  vocational  information  and  put  it  in 

form  to  be  used  by  teachers,  parents,  counselors, 
and  pupils. 

3.  To  train  and  supervise  teachers  to  act  as  counselors  or 

instructors  in  life-career  classes. 

4.  To  organize  classes  and  clubs  to  study  occupations. 

5.  To  supervise  placement  and  follow-up  for  full-time 

and  part-time  employment. 

6.  To  suggest  changes  in  the  work  of  the  school  to  meet 

vocational  demands. 


VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  2IQ 

7.  To  co-operate  with  employment  managers  and  com- 

munity agencies  interested  in  vocational  guidance. 

8.  To    plan    observation    trips,    organize    library    and 

museum  material ;  supervise  clubs  and  related  student 
activities;  arrange  for  speakers  and  auditorium 
programs  on  vocational  subjects. 

Guidance  Problems  in  Industry 

It  seems  to  be  fairly  clear  that  by  the  provision  of  broad 
experience  in  the  school  curriculum,  by  a  closer  co-ordination 
of  the  school  and  the  manifold  aspects  of  social  and  industrial 
activity,  much  of  the  aimless  drifting  through  school  and 
through  the  early  period  of  employment  can  be  stopped.  What 
then  are  the  specific  contributions  which  the  industrial  enter- 
prise can  make  through  its  service  and  educational  depart- 
ments to  promote  effective  guidance  for  its  own  employees  ?  As- 
suming that  the  school  has  reached  its  natural  limits  in  helping 
the  child  to  choose  his  vocation  and  is  doing  its  part  in  helping 
him  to  find  suitable  employment  and  become  more  efficient 
in  his  work,  what  ought  to  be  accomplished  by  the  factory 
organization?  The  main  guidance  issues  center  about  three 
functions:  the  selection  of  applicants;  transfers;  and  promo- 
tions. 

It  cannot  be  pointed  out  too  often,  as  anyone  who  examines 
the  haphazard  methods  still  in  use  in  the  great  majority  of 
industries  will  realize,  that  success  in  maintaining  a  stable, 
efficient  working  force  depends  to  a  large  extent  upon  bringing 
the  right  persons  into  the  organization.  In  their  anxiety  to 
keep  the  ranks  recruited  up  to  normal,  superintendents  and 
foremen  engage  persons  who  are  not  well  qualified  for  their 
work.  It  is  often  better  to  leave  a  position  unfilled  for  a 
time  than  to  employ  some  hastily  selected  person  with  the 
attendant  risk  of  work  badly  done  and  the  prospect  of  an  early 
replacement.  The  key  to  the  whole  situation  lies  in  the  hands 


220  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

of  the  interviewer;  his  qualifications  and  training  are  of  first- 
rate  importance. 

'  .          -r* 

Faulty  Interviewing 

The  employee  too  often  gets  his  first  impressions  of  the 
company  from  a  man  who  is  crude,  domineering,  and  un- 
sympathetic, or  from  a  young  clerk  who  is  brusque,  per- 
functory, and  ignorant  of  working  conditions.  In  most  firms, 
indeed,  a  wholly  disproportionate  amount  of  attention  is  de- 
voted to  the  problem  of  selling  the  product.  Expensive  dis- 
play rooms,  attractive  front  offices,  and  highly  trained  salesmen 
are  considered  essential  to  a  good  impression  upon  the  public 
and  prospective  buyers.  On  the  other  hand,  the  men  and 
women,  whose  interest  and  loyalty  are  fundamental  to  the 
existence  of  the  enterprise,  are  met  in  some  badly  lighted, 
poorly  ventilated  basement  room,  or  interviewed  through  a 
window  in  the  gate  by  someone  who  has  never  had  any 
preparation  for  his  task  and  is  personally  unfitted  for  it. 

Winning  an  Applicant's  Confidence 

The  preliminary  interview  with  the  prospective  employee 
is  in  fact  a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance.  The  physical 
environment  should  be  appropriate,  and  above  all  the  per- 
sonality of  the  interviewer  must  be  right.  The  interviewer 
has  it  in  his  power  not  only  to  win  the  respect  and  confidence 
of  those  who  are  accepted,  but  to  enhance  the  reputation  of 
the  company  with  those  who  are  temporarily  or  finally  re- 
jected. The  latter  advantage  is  often  of  much  assistance  in 
developing  the  sources  of  labor  supply. 

Experience  has  shown  that  there  are  certain  minimum 
essentials  to  be  observed  in  gaining  an  applicant's  confidence 
and  in  discovering  all  that  can  be  disclosed  by  an  interview 
concerning  his  good  qualities  and  shortcomings.  There  must 


VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  221 

be  a  comfortable  environment,  privacy,  the  absence  of  any 
evidence  of  fatigue  or  worry  on  the  part  of  the  interviewer, 
and  time  for  an  extended  conversation.  It  is  of  equal 
importance  in  most  cases  that  the  interviewer  have  some 
first-hand  knowledge  of  the  tasks  for  which  he  is  engaging 
help  as  well  as  a  general  acquaintance  with  the  social  sur- 
roundings of  persons  of  the  class  with  which  he  deals. 

Knowledge  of  the  Occupations 

The  head  of  one  of  the  largest  state  employment  offices 
in  the  country  said  recently  that  his  most  difficult  problem  was 
to  secure  properly  qualified  interviewers.  Because  of  unsatis- 
factory state  civil  service  restrictions,  it  is  possible  for  these 
places  to  be  gained  by  young  men  and  women  wholly  inex- 
perienced in  any  practical  line  of  work,  and  quite  out  of 
sympathy  with  the  problems  or  point  of  view  of  those  who 
seek  the  services  of  the  office.  The  recognition  of  the  necessity 
for  the  interviewer  to  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  nature 
of  each  job  and  its  requirements  is  already  apparent  among 
progressive  corporations.  It  is  not  too  much  to  hope  that 
the  public  employment  offices  will  come  in  time  to  adopt  the 
same  principle  and  will  insist  that  interviewers  be  held  respon- 
sible only  for  a  limited  number  of  trades  and  that  they 
familiarize  themselves  with  working  conditions  by  first-hand 
investigations  of  the  industries  in  their  vicinity. 

Organizing  the  Interviewer's  Task 

The  section  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  which 
deals  with  employment  management  in  the  shipyards  has  very 
wisely  magnified  the  position  of  the  interviewer.  The  great 
number  and  variety  of  the  shipyard  trades  makes  it  necessary 
in  all  of  the  larger  yards  to  divide  the  work  among  several 
persons,  each  of  whom  handles  a  certain  group  of  trades. 


222 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


Where  many  women  are  employed,  either  in  the  offices  or 
at  other  work,  a  woman  is  engaged  to  interview  female  appli- 
cants. Figure  44  shows  a  modification  of  an  office  layout 
which  has  been  found  satisfactory  in  several  of  the  large 
shipyards. 

Applicants  are  met  at  the  door  by  a  preliminary  inter- 
viewer who  weeds  out  those  who  are  quite  unfit  for  any  ship- 


Out  to  Shi  pyo  rd 

Medical 
Exam  i  n<rl  i  on  and 
Phpto9rapK. 

m      m      m 

DD 

Wnte-Up  Room       P«rsonol  Record  Fi  lied"  Out 

Rejected  Applicants 
Out  to  Street    ^^* 

0   Clerical 
and   . 
Female 

Metal          f~l 
Trades        P 
and             '  —  ' 
Hull  Construction 

Qw°t 
warJanj 
Trades 
ondTrs'ininq 
School 

Unsk.lied     fj] 
taoor         U 

3 

1                         I 

1                      I 

i                       ii                       i 

I                       II                       I 

1                       1    i 

Benches 

Aru 

.EL.' 

Entrance              " 

i                       i    i 

1                       1    \ 

^—-  -----  '      i                    i  \ 
Gas  Pipe  Guide  Rail 

1  1[       i  1 

1                         17                                 1 

1                         1                                   1 

^r^f^f^s-^^^s^f-f  -=r. 

J 

J 

Figure  44.     Layout  for  an  Employment  Office  in  a  Large  Shipyard 

I,  preliminary  interviewer;  2,  3,  4,  5,  interviewer's  desks;   6,  7,  8,  9,  recording  clerks. 

yard  occupation  as  well  as  those  who  merely  come  to  seek 
information.  He  then  directs  each  of  the  others  to  some  one 
of  the  interviewers,  according  to  the  work  for  which  they 
apply.  After  a  conversation  with  the  interviewer  in  the 
cubicle,  which  assures  a  fair  measure  of  privacy,  the  accepted 
applicant  is  passed  into  the  next  room  to  have  his  record 
formally  filled  out  by  clerks  who  are  preferably  middle-aged 
women. 


VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  223 

The  Interviewer  as  Adviser 

There  are  many  possibilities  of  service  in  the  interviewer's 
work  besides  the  function  of  accepting  or  rejecting  those  who 
apply  for  definite  positions.  He  ought  to  give  advice  of  value 
to  young  persons  who  are  just  entering  upon  their  vocations, 
thus  supplementing  the  activities  of  the  vocational-  counselors 
and  appointment  secretaries  employed  by  the  schools  and 
colleges. 

Among  the  older  persons  who  come  to  him  there  are  many 
who  are  experienced  in  a  number  of  different  lines,  or  who 
have  been  unsuccessful  in  previous  ventures;  their  best  talents 
ought  to  be  sought  out  and  they  should  be  helped  to  find 
satisfactory  channels  for  development.  By  co-operating  with 
an  industrial  physician  who  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
physical  requirements  of  each  task,  much  can  be  accomplished 
in  placing  to  good  advantage  persons  who  are  physically  handi- 
capped. The  war  has  made  it  necessary  to  care  for  our  in- 
jured sailors  and  soldiers  and  an  awakened  interest  is  being 
manifested  in  the  placement  of  industrial  cripples  in  jobs  where 
they  can  become  economically  independent. 

Necessity  of  Several  Viewpoints 

Even  when  the  interviewer  has  had  experience  in  several 
departments  within  the  establishment,  it  is  unlikely  that  he 
has  studied  the  trades  at  which  he  has  been  employed  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  mental  and  physical  qualifications 
necessary  successfully  to  engage  in  them.  His  information 
is  fragmentary  and  badly  organized;  he  must  be  taught  to 
view  work  and  those  who  do  it  from  a  different  angle  and 
to  systematize  his  information  for  use  in  new  ways.  Very 
few  skilled  mechanics  are  good  teachers  and,  by  the  same 
token,  the  skilled  man  lacks  the  additional  knowledge  and 
training  necessary  to  become  an  interviewer. 


224  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

After  he  has  gained  a  general  knowledge  of  the  processes 
of  manufacture  and  the  methods  of  doing  business,  and  knows 
the  location  and  nature  of  the  several  departments  into  which 
the  concern  is  divided,  the  interviewer  will  find  it  helpful  to 
study  the  organization  of  the  company,  becoming  familiar 
with  the  lines  of  authority  and  the  relations  among  the  depart- 
ments and  divisions.  This  will  give  him  a  clearer  understand- 
ing of  the  problems  of  the  firm  and  will  make  it  easier  for 
him  to  appreciate  the  relation  of  one  job  to  another  and  the 
possible  opportunities  for  advancement. 

Job  Study 

One  of  the  best  ways  for  the  interviewer,  or  any  other 
member  of  the  employment  department,  to  gain  an  adequate 
comprehension  of  the  "human"  factors  which  center  about 
each  job,  is  to  assist  in  drawing  up  a  set  of  written  specifica- 
tions for  hiring.  This  may  occupy  his  time  during  a  period 
of  preliminary  training,  or  he  may  engage  in  it  during  after- 
noons or  slack  periods. 

Confusion  sometimes  arises  in  the  use  of  such  terms  as 
"job  analysis,"  "standard  procedure,"  and  "job  specification," 
all  of  which  denote  somewhat  similar  forms  of  job  study. 
In  his  article  on  "Time  Studies  for  Rate-Setting  on  Machine 
Tools"  in  Industrial  Management  for  June,  1918,  Dwight  V. 
Merrick  divides  a  time  study  into  six  subdivisions: 

1.  Study  of  the  work  and  conditions  that  influence  its 

performance. 

2.  Analysis  of  the  work  into  its  elements. 

3.  Observing  and  recording  the  elapsed  time  for  the  per- 

formance of  each  of  the  elements. 

4.  Study  and  analysis  of  the  records  obtained  in  (3). 

5.  Determining  a  just  time  for  the  performance  of  each 

of  the  elements. 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  225 

6.  Preparing  from  the  time-study  records  an  instruction 
card,  including  the  determination  of  an  allowance 
for  fatigue  and  unavoidable  delays. 

The  first  two  of  these  subdivisions  may  be  grouped  to- 
gether and  termed  a  "job  analysis,"  or  a  "preliminary  job 
analysis"  since  it  precedes  the  time  study  proper.  Except 
where  changes  in  machinery  or  processes  are  being  considered 
with  a  view  to  the  placement  of  women  or  physically  handi- 
capped persons,  the  employment  department  is  not  ordinarily 
concerned  with  an  analysis  which  takes  account  of  such  fine 
divisions  of  the  operation  as  the  time  study  requires. 

'     / 
Standard  Practice 

Under  scientific  management,  standard  instruction  sheets 
or  written  standard  procedures  are  used  to  designate  the  way 
in  which  a  machine  operation  is  to  be  performed,  or  a  given 
process  carried  out.  The  data  for  standard  practice  are  drawn 
from  time  studies  or  experiments  and  from  consultation  with 
workers,  foremen,  and  others  who  are  concerned  with  the 
operation  or  process.  The  record  describes  each  of  the  main 
and  subsidiary  steps  in  their  proper  sequence  so  that  every 
operative  or  person  in  charge  of  a  process  may  follow  the 
approved  method.  As  in  the  case  of  job  analysis,  these  data 
are  too  detailed  and  technical  to  be  of  any  great  value  to  the 
employment  department. 

Job  Specifications 

A  job  or  trade  specification  is  not  always  concerned  with 
a  particular  process  or  operation ;  it  describes  a  position  which 
one  person  is  expected  to  fill  and  may  thus  include  several 
distinct  tasks  or  only  one.  It  should  be  worded  in  such  a 
way  as  to  help  an  applicant  in  determining  his  own  fitness 
for  the  place  as  well  as  to  assist  the  interviewer  in  making 


226  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

a  selection.    A  satisfactory  specification  for  hiring  should  have 
the  following  divisions: 

4» 

1.  A  general  description  of  the  way  in  which  the  work 

is  done  and  of  the  worker's  environment. 

2.  A  statement  of  the  fundamental  mental  and  physical 

qualifications  and  the  education  and  experience  ex- 
pected in  an  employee. 

3.  A  record  of  the  conditions  of  service,  such  as  wages, 

hours,  shifts,  vacations,  possible  lines  of  promotion, 
and  other  social  and  economic  advantages  or  dis- 
advantages. 

In  a  previous  volume,  "Hiring  the  Worker"  (pages 
45  to  56),  the  author  has  summarized  the  advantages  of 
job  specifications.  For  the  interviewer,  the  greatest  gains 
come  from  making  a  systematic  study  of  each  position  so  that 
he  may  attain  increased  definiteness  both  in  questioning  ap- 
plicants and  in  presenting  the  merits  of  the  job  to  them.  A 
further  advantage  is  gained  by  having  a  standard  upon  which 
the  employment  bureau  and  the  foremen  or  department  heads 
are  agreed.  Uniformity  of  methods  and  standards  among 
interviewers  is  extremely  valuable  in  a  large  concern,  and  a 
basis  of  agreement  between  the  employment  manager  and 
foremen  is  helpful  in  the  smaller  enterprise. 

Some  Typical  Job  Specifications 

Figure  45  illustrates  the  form  of  job  specification  used 
by  the  Trade  Test  Division  of  the  Committee  on  Classification 
of  Personnel  in  the  Army.  Several  hundred  trades  have  been 
described  in  this  way  and  are  now  available  in  a  volume  issued 
by  the  United  States  Army.  During  the  wars,  these  specifica- 
tions were  used  in  classifying  and  allocating  tradesmen  in 
the  Army. 


VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  227 


Pigeoi 

441 

66-PiGEON  FANCIER 
i  Expert,  Homing  Racing        66-h                                             PAEJD 

DUTIES 
i.  Organization,  supervision  of  flying  and  breeding  of  large 
groups  of  homing  pigeons. 

QUALIFICATIONS 
2.  Must  have  had  extended  successful  personal  experience  in 
the  breeding,  training  and  racing  in  competition  of  racing 
homing  pigeons  and  ability  to  supervise  organization  of 
large  and  modern  central  lofts. 
Must  have  extended  knowledge  of,  and  had  successful 
application  of  principles  of  cross,  or  inbreeding,  and  have 
thorough  familiarity  with  standard  American  and  foreign 
breeds  and  bloods,  and  prominent  records  and  birds. 
Must  have  a  full  knowledge  of  foods  and  food  values,  and 
variations  thereof  for  changing  seasons  and  conditions,  and 
an  extended  knowledge  of  approved  methods  of  training 
of  birds  in  his  own  loft,  and  successful  competition  in  races, 
with  extended  knowledge  of  approved  methods  of  keeping 
breeding  and  pedigree  records. 
Must  have  a  full  knowledge  of  types  of  standard  lofts,  and 
requirements  therefor  and  mechanical  ability  to  keep  lofts  in 
proper  condition. 
Experience  in  the  handling,  and  instruction  of  men  and 
some  military  experience  is  desirable. 

SUBSTITUTE  OCCUPATIONS 
3.  Pigeon  fancier. 

Figure  45.     Form  of  Job  Specification 

Used  by  the  Trade  Test  Division  of  the  Committee  on  the  Classification  of  Personnel 
in  the  United  States  Army. 

A  somewhat  similar  form,  illustrated  in  Figure  46,  is  used 
by  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  in  its  bulletin  "Aids  to 
Employment  Managers  and  Interviewers  on  Shipyard  Occupa- 
tions" and  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics 
in  specifications  for  a  great  variety  of  trades  which  it  is  pre- 
paring for  the  use  of  the  Federal  Employment  Service. 


228  TRAINING  INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 


BOLTER-UP 

Other  Names  by  which  Occupation  Is  Known: 
Bolter 

Occupations  Most  Nearly  Allied: 

Machinist's  Helper,  Boilermaker's  Helper,  Regulator. 

Trade  Requirements: 

The  Bolter-up  fastens  the  plates,  beams,  etc.,  in  place  on  the  vessel, 
so  that  they  may  be  reamed  and  riveted.  Two  Bolters-up  usually 
work  together — one  with  a  maul  and  drift-pin,  the  other  applying 
the  fastening  bolts. 

Education: 

Common  school,  or  none. 

Physical  Requirements: 

Average  strength  and  endurance;  agility. 

Mental  Requirements: 

Average  intelligence. 

Experience : 

The  Bolter-up  is  usually  recruited  from  the  more  agile  and  alert 
helpers  or  laborers  in  the  shipyard.  It  requires  several  weeks  to 
become  an  efficient  Bolter-up. 

Entrance  Requirements  for  Training  School: 

Average  intelligence;  ordinary  physique;  not  under  18  years  of 
age. 

Rate  Established: 


Figure  46.    Job  Specification  Designed  by  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation 

A  certain  amount  of  additional  data  of  local  significance, 
especially  informative  to  a  beginner  in  that  line  of  industry, 
should  appear  on  the  job  specifications  prepared  by  a  private 
firm.  Figure  47  is  a  form  which  includes  the  best  features 
of  several  blanks  now  in  use. 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  229 


GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS 


Occupations Index  No 

Department Foreman , 

No.  Male  Operatives Female Total : , 

No.  Under  18  yrs  .of  age:  Boys Girls Total , 

Permanent  position Temporary Seasonal Steady, 

Hours:  First  shift:     A.M P.M Lunch  Hour 

Second  shift:  A.M P.M Lunch  hour 

Third  shift:    A.M P.M Lunch  hour , 

Saturday  P.M Lunch  hour 

Vacation  arrangements , 

Time  required  to  learn  job Piece-work  or  time , 

Wages  to  start Advance When Maximum. , 

Duties 

Experience  necessary  for  first-class  rating: 

Kindred  trades 

Special  qualifications 

Read Write Use  blue-prints 

Do  employees  sit  or  stand? Percentage  of  time 

Work  heavy Dusty Wet Hot 

Heaviest  weight  lifted  on  this  job Other  disadvantages 

Nationality  preferred 

Opportunity  for  promotion  from to 


PHYSICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

Degree  of 

Age to Height Weight Eyesight Strength 

Can   women   replace   men? How   many     women? 

Special  qualifications  for  women ' 

What  changes  should  be  made  if  women  are  used  (ventilating  systems, 

toilets,  chairs,  conveyors,  etc.) 

If  persons  with  physical  disabilities  can  be  used,  state  probable  number  in 
each  case.  Under  Remarks,  state  changes  necessary  in  machinery  or 
procedure  and  extent  of  disability  allowable,  referring  to  disability  by 
number,  i.  Leg.  2.  Arm.  3.  Hand.  4.  Weak  lungs.  5.  Heart  disease. 
6.  Defective  sight.  7.  Defective  hearing.  8.  Other  handicaps.1 
Remarks: 


1  Other  handicaps:    t. — trunk  injuries;    g. — general  weakness;    rh. — rheumatism;   h. — 
hernia. 

Figure  47.    A  Job  Specification  Adapted  for  General  Factory  Use 


230 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 


VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE 


231 


A  form  of  specification  which  readily  lends  itself  to  several 
important  uses  is  exemplified  in  Figure  48.  A.  B.  Segur 
of  the  Red  Cross  Institute  for  the  Blind  in  Baltimore  used 
a  modification  of  this  plan  in  surveying  the  Chicago  stock- 
yards. It  has  been  developed  somewhat  further  and  is  now 
being  used  by  the  Harvard  University  Bureau  of  Vocational 
Guidance  in  its  surveys  of  occupational  opportunities  for 
physically  handicapped  men.  The  chart  shows  the  sequence  of 
operations  in  a  concern  manufacturing  rubber  tires. 

Each  block  on  the  chart  is  the  exact  size  of  the  one 
printed  below.  The  name  of  the  operation  or  job  appears  in 
the  center  and  the  significance  of  each  of  the  other  sets  of 
figures  and  letters  are  shown  in  the  key. 


IMTANHEFKLRPSV 
C  I  R2  N2  PyN iHNNN 
Putting  in  Valves 
TAi 


$20  wk 


Sample  Block  from  the  Specification  Chart 


Qualifications  and 
Disabilities 

Job  No. 


Weekly  Wage 

Classification 
Male  or  Female 


Key  to  the  Sample  Block  Shown  Above 

The  upper  row  of  letters  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner 
of  the  block  refer  to  the  qualifications  and  disabilities  appear- 
ing after  the  same  set  of  letters  in  the  reference  list  of  symbols 
which  follows.  The  code  is  interpreted  thus:  The  letter  C 
under  /  on  the  block  means  that  the  third  grade  of  intelligence 


232  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

is  required  in  polishing,  while  the  figure  I  under  M  indicates 
that  it  takes  an  employee  about  I  month  to  learn  the  operation. 

'  .          v* 
REFERENCE  LIST  OF  SYMBOLS  FOR  JOB  SPECIFICATIONS 

/:  Intelligence.  A,  highest  grade  executive  capacity;  B, 
capable  of  acquiring  and  using  technical  knowledge 
and  directing  others;  C,  ordinary  intelligence,  capable 
of  following  instructions;  D,  all  others  of  lower  grade. 

M:  Months  to  learn  the  work  required  under  average  con- 
ditions. 

T:  Training  and  education.  X,  illiterate;  B,  can  read  blue- 
prints; R,  can  read  and  write;  U,  university  or  college 
technical  training;  S,  secondary  school  technical  train- 
ing; C,  clerical  training. 

A:  Arms,     i  or  2. 

N:  Nerves.    N,  normal;  R,  reliable;  S,  shell-shock. 

H:  Hands.     I  or  2. 

E:  Ears.    N,  normal;  P,  poor;  D,  deaf. 

F:  Fingers,     o  to  10. 

K:  Kidneys  and  other  trunk  organs.  Nf  normal;  F,  fair; 
W,  weak;  U,  unfit. 

L:  Legs,     i  or  2. 

R:  Rupture  or  hernia.    N,  normal;  H,  hernia. 

P:  Pulmonary  or  lungs.  N,  normal;  P,  poor;  A,  arrested 
tuberculosis. 

S:  Skin.    N,  normal;  /,  irritated;  D,  diseased. 

V ':  Vision.    N,  normal;  P,  poor;  B,  blind. 

The  plan  is  quite  flexible  and  can  be  adapted  to  fit  any 
set  of  qualifications.  By  cross-references  to  organization  and 
promotion  charts,  it  is  possible  to  get  a  complete  story  of  the 
organization  for  the  use  of  the  employment  department  in 
comparatively  little  space. 

Acquaintance  With  Supervisors 

Besides  a  familiarity  with  the  job,  the  interviewer  needs 
a  close  acquaintance  with  those  for  whom  he  hires  help.  Even 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  233 

the  interviewer  who  has  come  from  some  department  within 
the  concern  must  keep  constantly  in  touch  with  those  who 
supervise  employees,  studying  the  employment  needs  and  the 
demands  of  their  departments  as  well  as  their  personal  pecu- 
liarities. He  should  attend  foremen's  meetings,  meet  execu- 
tives at  luncheon,  visit  both  office  and  factory  departments, 
and  make  frequent  occasions  for  discussions  of  mutual  in- 
terest with  department  heads  as  well  as  foremen  and  minor 
executives. 

Knowing  Sources  of  Labor  Supply 

An  analysis  of  the  sources  of  labor  supply  will  reveal  the 
lines  of  study  outside  of  the  plant  which  the  interviewer  ought 
to  be  encouraged  to  pursue.  Does  he  deal  with  persons  who 
come  recommended  by  schools  and  colleges?  Then  he  should 
learn  something  of  their  characteristics  and  how  their  courses 
of  study  differ;  he  should  meet  teachers,  principals,  or  voca- 
tional counselors  and  form  some  judgment  as  to  the  relative 
value  of  their  recommendations.  Does  he  accept  applicants 
from  employment  bureaus,  from  labor  organizations,  the 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  or  charitable  associations  ?  Then  his  work  suffers 
unless  he  has  formed  an  acquaintance  with  their  interviewers 
or  secretaries  and  makes  some  clear  distinctions  as  to  the 
relative  worth  of  the  statements  they  make  regarding  the  per- 
sons they  send. 

Familiarity  With  Other  Plants 

A  familiarity  with  other  plants  and  their  methods  will  be 
an  asset  of  immense  value.  If  Smith  is  leaving  the  Jones 
Manufacturing  Company,  his  story  can  be  interpreted  to  much 
better  advantage  if  the  interviewer  knows  something  of  the 
Jones  Company's  methods  of  doing  business  or  is  acquainted 
with  Smith's  foreman.  Even  in  a  large  city,  the  interviewer 
or  employment  manager  who  definitely  pursues  inquiries  along 


234  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

these  lines  will  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  find  himself  in 
possession  of  a  surprising  fund  of  pertinent  information. 

•f* 
Use  of  Observational  Tests 

Those  who  have  advocated  observational  methods  for 
analyzing  character  or  vocational  aptitudes'  base  their  conten- 
tions upon  theories  which  are  pretty  thoroughly  discredited. 
The  idea  that  the  color  of  the  hair  or  the  shape  of  the  face 
is  directly  associated  with  well-defined  mental  traits,  is  a  mis- 
taken one.  Modern  psychology  makes  such  a  view  impossible. 
Moreover,  the  grouping  of  individuals  into  types,  which  is  im- 
plied in  determining  character  by  observations  such  as  those 
mentioned  above,  violates  the  well-established  law  of  biological 
variation.  In  the  mental  as  in  the  physical  realm,  no  two 
individuals  are  alike,  though  each  is  an  intricate  and  complex 
bundle  of  mental  factors.  And  it  is  this  infinite  complexity 
of  the  factors  which  enter  into  the  individual  make-up,  all 
distributed  in  any  large,  unselected  group  of  individuals  ac- 
cording to  the  normal  curve  of  probability  or  the  "law  of 
chance,"  that  renders  classification  according  to  types  erron- 
eous and  futile. 

Of  the  several  variables  or  factors  which  the  exponents 
of  the  observational  method  use,  the  most  important  are  the 
ones  least  emphasized.  Facial  expression,  posture,  personal 
habits,  physical  condition  including  nutrition,  the  voice,  man- 
ner, and  style  in  writing  and  speaking,  are  always  of  much 
greater  consequence  than  the  texture  of  the  skin,  the  color 
of  the  eyes  or  hair,  or  the  configuration  of  the  face.  Given 
a  normal  mentality  and  physique,  vocational  fitness  can  be 
determined  much  more  accurately  by  a  study  of  home  and 
social  environment,  education,  and  previous  experience,  than 
by  any  observational  method  yet  proposed.  Much  more  re- 
liable methods  of  assessing  human  talents  and  shortcomings 
are  to  be  found  in  the  psychology  of  behavior  than  in 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  235 

phrenology  and  physiognomy.  The  literature  on  the  subject 
opens  up  a  multitude  of  avenues  for  serious  thought  and 
observation.2 

It  should  be  pointed  out  in  this  connection  that  the  as- 
sistance to  be  gained  from  a  thorough  physical  examination 
made  by  a  competent  physician  has  been  too  well  demonstrated 
to  require  any  extended  argument  in  its  favor.  It  is  also 
probable  that  the  past  record  is  of  more  consequence  than  is 
commonly  supposed.  Contrary  to  the  usual  opinion,  those  who 
rank  in  the  upper  fourth  of  their  high  school  classes  tend  to 
retain  that  position  in  college  and  later  in  vocational  life. 
Similarly;  those  who  do  poor  schoolwork,  ranking  in  the  lower 
fourth  of  the  preparatory  school  classes,  tend  to  do  poor 
college-work  and  are  not  likely  to  be  successful  either  in  the 
professions  or  in  business. 

The  Use  of  Psychological  Tests 

For  the  most  part  the  tests  for  adult  intelligence,  so  far 
devised,  do  no  more  than  indicate  some  of  the  grosser  dif- 
ferences in  intelligence.  Tests  like  those  of  Binet  and  Simon 
or  the  revisions  devised  by  Terman  and  Yerkes  are  merely 
intended  to  determine  the  relative  amount  of  the  child's  mental 
development  and  are  unsatisfactory  beyond  the  chronological 
age  of  fifteen  years.  No  satisfactory  single  test  or  groups 
of  tests  for  differentiating  grades  of  adult  intelligence,  except 
of  the  grosser  sort,  have  been  seriously  proposed. 

The  majority  of  the  so-called  vocational  tests  are  nothing 
more  than  standardized  methods  of  indicating  the  more  im- 
portant differences  in  general  intelligence.  Thus  the  tests  for 
salesmanship  or  clerical  positions  are,  in  the  main,  of  value 
in  that  they  help  an  employer  who  has  no  previous  knowledge 

2  Such  books  as  the  following  can  he  read  with  the  greatest  interest  and  profit — 
Freud-Brill's  "Psychqpathology  in  Every  Day  Life,"  Holt's  "The  Freudian  Wish 
and  Its  Place  in  Ethics,"  McDougall's  "Social  Psychology,"  and  Parmelee's  "Science 
of  Human  Behavior."  As  a  rule,  subnormality  of  neither  mind  nor  body  can  be 
diagnosed  successfully  except  on  the  basis  of  searching  inquiry  into  many  factors. 


236  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

about  the  applicant  to  arrive  at  some  conclusion  as  to  his 
probable  place  in  the  mental  scale.  To  be  sure,  a  few  of 
these  systems  contain  tests  which  call  for  activities  resembling 
those  performed  by  the  employee,  such  as  standardized  tests 
in  spelling,  dictation,  and  typing  for  stenographers.  In  such 
cases  there  is  no  question  as  to  the  practical  value  of  the  test 
material  if  it  is  properly  used. 

Unsatisfactory  Tests 

Particularly  unsatisfactory  is  the  type  of  test  which  as- 
sumes to  ascertain  vocational  fitness  by  analogy,  such  a  test 
as  Miinsterberg's  method  of  choosing  ship  captains  by  ex- 
amining the  subject's  ability  to  make  quick  decisions  in  sort- 
ing cards.  By  trying  for  speed  and  paying  no  attention  to 
accuracy  a  person  may  make  an  excellent  record.  The  test 
seems  to  suggest  that  a  ship  captain  should  make  quick  deci- 
sions whether  he  goes  on  the  shoals  or  not.' 

There  has  been  an  unfortunate  tendency  in  certain  quarters 
to  recommend  tests  which  have  been  tried  on  only  a  few 
individuals  and  for  which  no  satisfactory  standards  are  avail- 
able. A  recent  volume  on  this  subject  contains  a  number  of 
schemes  wholly  unworthy  of  serious  consideration.  It  con- 
tains several  experiments  which  have  been  tried  out  on  only 
ten,  twenty,  or  thirty  individuals.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible 
to  employ  material  of  this  kind  unless  it  has  been  tried  under 
controlled  conditions  upon  a  large  number  of  cases.  Tests 
tried  on  a  small  number  of  employees  who  represent  selected 
groups  are  of  very  little  practical  use. 

Army  Trade  Tests 

The  Committee  on  Classification  of  Personnel  in  the  Army 
have  developed  a  number  of  trade  tests  which  have  been 
successfully  utilized  in  placing  soldiers  and  sailors  and  which 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE 

seem  to  open  a  hopeful  field  of  experimentation.  These  tests 
are  of  three  kinds:  standardized  questions,  picture  tests,  and 
performance  examinations.  The  following  examples  will  in- 
dicate the  general  nature  of  the  method: 

UNITED  STATES  ARMY  STANDARD  PRELIMINARY  EXAMINA- 
TION FOR  THE  CARPENTER  TRADE 

1.  QUESTION  :  What  portion  of  the  length  of  a  16"  shingle 
should  be  exposed  to  the  weather  on  a  roof? 

ANSWER  :  Not  over  5  inches. 

2.  QUESTION:     What  figures  on  the  steel  square  would 
you  use  in  marking  a  miter? 

ANSWER:    Any  two  equal  figures. 

3.  QUESTION  :    What  is  the  usual  size  of  a  2"  x  4"  after , 
it  has  been  sized  on  one  side  and  one  edge  ? 

ANSWER:    ifa"  x  3  24". 

UNITED  STATES  ARMY  STANDARD  PERFORMANCE  TEST  FOR 
THE  CARPENTER  TRADE 

1.  TEST:    Take  this  3- ft.  piece  of  i  x  6  and  saw  it  into 
two  pieces  of  i  x  3. 

MEMORANDUM  :  The  line  of  cut  should  be  marked  fall 
length  of  board.  Cut  should  be  made  with  rip  saw  following 
the  line  accurately.  The  angle  of  the  saw  should  remain 
the  same  during  the  full  stroke  of  the  cut  with  a  full  arm 
movement. 

REPLY:  Face  of  cut  should  be  perfectly  straight  and 
smooth  and  at  right  angles  to  the  face  of  the  board. 

2.  TEST:      Take   this   2- ft.   piece    of    i-inch    half-round 
moulding  and  cut  one  end  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees — the 
other  end  at  30  degrees — using  a  miter  box. 

MEMORANDUM  :  Moulding  should  be  placed  in  miter  box 
and  the  proper  angle  for  the  cut  selected.  Saw  used  should 
be  fine  tooth  and  the  stroke  should  be  almost  horizontal 
throughout. 

REPLY  :  Cut  should  be  sharp  and  clean.  Saw  should  not 
cut  into  miter  box. 


238  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

The  material  for  these  tests  was  secured  by  thorough 
investigations  of  each  trade  in  order  to  discover  suitable  ques- 
tions and  simple  problems.  ^The  tests  finally  selected  were 
standardized  by  trying  them  upon  groups  of  experts,  journey- 
men, apprentices,  and  novices.  Questions  which  could  not  be 
answered  or  work  which  could  not  be  performed  by  novices 
served  to  select  the  tradesmen,  while  problems  which  could 
only  be  solved  by  the  expert  were  intended  to  eliminate  ap- 
plicants having  a  relatively  small  amount  of  experience. 
Those  in  charge  of  the  army  tests  claim  for  them  three  ad- 
vantages : 

1.  Uniformity  in  method. 

2.  Problems  and  answers  so  well  standardized  that  they 

can  be  used  by  persons  without  special  training  in 
experimental  psychology. 

3.  Only  a  few  minutes  are  required  to  give  them. 

Experimentation  in  this  field  can  not  be  successfully  at- 
tempted in  industrial  plants  or  business  houses  by  persons  who 
have  not  had  the  statistical  and  psychological  training  neces- 
sary to  comprehend  fully  the  steps  involved  in  formulating 
and  standardizing  the  test  material.  On  that  account  there 
is  little  value  in  offering  instruction  on  these  subjects  to  inter- 
viewers who  have  not  had  college  preparation  or  its  equivalent. 

Choice  of  Interviewer 

In  a  small  concern  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  employment 
manager  to  interview  the  majority  of  the  applicants  and  even 
in  larger  establishments  he  may  be  called  upon  to  select  em- 
ployees for  certain  positions  or  departments.  There  appears 
to  be  a  tendency  in  the  direction  of  selecting  for  employment 
managers  men  who  have  had  extensive  shop  experience  but 
very  little  education.  The  success  of  concerns  that  have  tried 
the  opposite  method  of  choosing  persons  who  have  had  a  few 


VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE 

years'  contact  with  industry  and  a  considerable  amount  of 
technical  or  professional  education  proves  that  the  latter  type 
of  qualification  gives  much  better  results.  An  examination 
of  the  work  done  by  an  interviewer  in  any  large,  well-organized 
service  department  reveals  the  need  for  a  similar  kind  of 
preparation. 

Value  of  Practical  Experience 

The  point  just  made  needs  emphasis.  Too  much  stress 
cannot  be  laid  upon  the  value  of  having  some  practical  ex- 
perience in  shop  or  factory  work.  This  ought,  if  possible, 
to  have  been  done  under  the  urge  of  economic  necessity; 
otherwise  the  point  of  view  of  the  worker  is  never  completely 
grasped.  The  interviewer  who  has  spent  a  good  many  years 
at  his  trade  comes  by  a  kind  of  intuition  to  recognize  those 
who  are  well  qualified  in  his  line.  Like  the  prosperous  busi- 
ness man  without  special  training  who  makes  no  use  of  modern 
methods  of  accounting  and  investigation,  he  succeeds  in  spite 
of  his  limitations  and  may  in  the  long  run  make  very  few 
serious  blunders. 

It  is  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  a  knowledge  of 
the  job  alone  will  enable  the  tradesmen  to  select  others  for  it. 
There  are  so  many  diverse  factors  which  enter  into  his  work 
and  which  help  him  to  become  proficient  that  general  educa- 
tional qualifications  ought  not  to  be  neglected.  He  can  acquire 
a  sufficiently  thorough  knowledge  of  the  positions  to  be  filled 
in  a  relatively  short  time  if  he  has  the  intelligence  and  training 
which  fit  him  to  collect  and  organize  new  information. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
ORGANIZING  FOR  TRANSFERS  AND  PROMOTIONS 

Transfer  of  Employees 

Any  adequate  solution  of  the  problems  of  vocational  guid- 
ance involves  systematic  provision  for  the  transfer  and  promo- 
tion of  workers  who  have  already  entered  on  a  vocation.  Too 
often  at  present  this  is  neglected.  The  employee  who  fails 
to  give  satisfaction  in  the  task  for  which  he  is  hired  is  sum- 
marily dismissed;  there  is  little  inclination  to  make  read- 
justments within  the  department,  and  no  machinery  for 
discovering  and  utilizing  special  talents  or  abilities  by  shifts 
to  work  under  other  foremen.  The  losses  arising  from  this 
source  are  many. 

Under  centralized  and  co-ordinated  control  of  employment 
these  losses  are  greatly  reduced.  The  employee  receives  in- 
telligent, sympathetic  consideration  instead  of  being  shunted 
at  random  from  job  to  job.  Seasonal  or  emergency  fluctua- 
tions are  cared  for  by  carefully  planned  transfers  within  the 
plant ;  the  concern  gets  the  advantage  of  workers  familiar  with 
the  company's  methods  and  policies  while  employees  are  saved 
the  time  that  would  otherwise  be  wasted  in  a  lay-off  or  in 
seeking  other  employment.  Control  by  the  employment  depart- 
ment of  discipline  and  discharge  greatly  lessens  the  labor  turn- 
over resulting  from  petty  grievances,  malicious  or  ill-advised 
action  on  the  part  of  foremen,  and  errors  in  the  original 
assignment  to  work.  A  careful  review  by  some  representative 
of  the  employment  department  of  every  case  of  discharge  or 
voluntary  leaving,,  acts  as  a  check  on  thoughtless  or  ill-tem- 

240 


TRANSFERS    AND    PROMOTIONS 


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TRANSFERS   AND   PROMOTIONS  243 

pered  action  and  frequently  opens  the  way  for  saving  valuable 
employees  to  the  company. 

The  reports  shown  in  Figures  49  and  50  have  been  used 
by  the  Hood  Rubber  Company  of  Watertown  for  compiling 
a  record  of  these  cases.  A  well-trained,  experienced  man  gives 
his  entire  time  to  the  investigation  of  matters  brought  to  light 
by  his  interviews  with  employees  desiring  to  leave  the  firm  or 
with  persons  who  have  proved  unsatisfactory  to  foremen  or 
department  heads.  Such  a  practice  successfully  prosecuted 
implies  not  only  good  vocational  guidance,  but  also  a  progres- 
sive modification  of  manufacturing  methods,  working  condi- 
tions, and  general  policies. 

/  •  ..     • 

Causes  of  Transfer 

The  common  causes  for  transfer  which  can  be  distinguished 
from  those  involving  promotion  may  be  summarized  thus: 

1.  Personal  feeling  arises  between  the  employee  and  his 
superiors  or  other  employees. 

2.  The  person  is  not  qualified  for  the  kind  or  grade  of 
work  assigned. 

3.  Health  conditions  may  demand  a  change. 

4.  Requests  for  transfers  come  from  employees  who  have 
fitted  themselves  for  some  other  line  of  work. 

5.  Certain  tasks  become  irksome  and   dissatisfaction  is 
avoided  by  occasional  changes. 

6.  Seasonal  or  emergency  fluctuations  in  production  neces- 
sitate shifting  workers  from  one  department  or  task  to  an- 
other. 

7.  Additions  or  changes  are  made  in  equipment  or  build- 
ings, thus  increasing  or  decreasing  the  number  of  persons 
employed. 

8.  New  employees  are  taken  on  for  temporary  work  to 
which  they  are  not  especially  well  adapted  with  the  under- 
standing that  some  change  will  occur  later. 


244 


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.  6 

£s 


246  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

Recording  Devices 

Various  devices  are  in  use  for  recording  the  qualifications 
of  employees  in  such  a  way  as  to  render  the  routine  of  making 
transfers  easier  for  the  employment  office.  At  the  Submarine 
Boat  Corporation  of  Newark,  New  Jersey,  transfers  are 
effected  by  means  of  the  folder  shown  in  Figure  51.  To  aid 
quick  reference,  tags  of  various  colors  are  used.  The  number 
of  the  trades  represented  in  the  plant  are  printed  across  the 
top  of  the  folder  in  two  lines:  i  to  40,  and  41  to  80.  The 
trade  for  which  the  worker  is  hired  is  indicated  by  a  red  tag 
for  trades  numbered  from  i  to  40,  and  a  blue  tag  for  trades 
numbered  from  41  to  80.  To  indicate  a  trade  in  which  the 
worker  has  had  experience  a  green  tag  is  used  for  trades  num- 
bered from  i  to  40  and  a  yellow  tag  for  trades  numbered 
from  41  to  80. 

When  additional  workers  are  wanted  in  any  part  of  the 
plant,  a  demand  is  made  upon  the  employment  department, 
which  first  consults  the  employment  records  in  the  folders. 
Before  taking  on  new  men,  transfers  are  made  of  those  who 
can  be  spared  from  the  departments  in  which  they  are  working, 
or  who  can  be  properly  assigned  to  the  work  for  which  the 
call  comes. 

All  this  saves  time  in  securing  new  men  and  expedites 
work  in  the  yard.  It  also  creates  a  good  feeling  toward  the 
company  on  the  part  of  the  worker  because  it  means  placing 
a  man  finally  where  he  is  best  fitted  to  be. 

It  is  essential  that  those  having  charge  of  transfers  safe- 
guard themselves  against  the  corrupting  tendency  to  substitute 
a  shift  to  another  position  for  a  determined  effort  to  remove 
disturbing  causes.  In  many  cases  it  is  wise  to  refuse  the 
request  for  transfer,  and  seek  to  remedy  bad  working  condi- 
tions, to  adjust  differences  of  opinion  or  eliminate  prejudices, 
to  improve  the  worker  through  training,  or  to  enforce  salutary 
discipline. 


TRANSFERS  AND   PROMOTIONS  247 

Promotions 

In  summarizing  the  effect  of  scientific  management  upon 
advancement  and  promotion,  Professor  Robert  F.  Hoxie,  in 
his  "Scientific  Management  and  Labor,"  concludes  that  ad- 
vanced positions  are  more  often  recruited  from  within  the 
shop  than  is  the  case  under  the  older  forms  of  executive  con- 
trol. This  assurance  may  very  well  offset  some  of  the  dis- 
advantages of  scientific  management  claimed  by  organized 
labor,  since  a  knowledge  that  the  better  paid  and  more  respon- 
sible positions  are  to  be  filled  from  the  ranks  is  one  of  the 
strongest  incentives  that  can  be  held  before  the  workman.  Mr. 
Taylor  and  his  associates  also  claim  for  scientific  management 
increased  stimulation  through  systems  of  wage  payment  which 
provide  rewards  for  increase  in  quantity  or  improvement  in 
quality  of  output.  Functional  foremanship  and  other  staff 
departments  create  new  divisions  of  responsibility  not 
previously  within  the  reach  of  shopworkers.  There  is  usually 
provision  under  scientific  management  for  the  rating  of  each 
employee  on  several  points,  and  there  is  at  least  available  a 
record  of  individual  earnings  and  output. 

Criticisms  of  Scientific  Management 

Over  against  these  advantages  Professor  Hoxie  in  "Scien- 
tific Management  and  Labor"  places  the  following  criticisms. 

In  the  first  place,  as  we  have  seen,  scientific  manage- 
ment often  fails  in  the  development  of  functional  foreman- 
ship,  and  in  the  elimination  of  favoritism.  Secondly,  it 
tends  to  create  a  multitude  of  new  tasks  on  which  less  skill 
is  required  and  lower  rates  can  be  paid;  has  developed  no 
efficient  system  for  the  placing  or  adaptation  of  the  workers; 
is  inclined,  in  practice,  to  regard  a  worker  as  adapted  to 
his  work  and  rightly  placed  when  he  succeeds  in  making  the 
task;  tends  to  confine  the  mass  of  the  workmen  to  one  or 
two  tasks,  and  has  afforded  little  opportunity,  therefore,  for 
the  discovery  and  development  of  special  aptitudes  among  the 


248  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

mass.  Moreover,  careful  record-keeping  and  the  knowledge 
which  it  conveys  to  the  management  have  their  disadvantages 
as  well  as  advantages,  looked  at  from  the  viewpoint  of  ad- 
vancement. The  employer  is  'loath  to  take  a  worker  from 
a  task  where  he  is  making  a  high  efficiency  record,  and  the 
man  or  woman  whose  record  is  not  good  is  more  surely 
destined  to  a  less  skilled  and  perhaps  narrower  task.  The 
fact  is  that  scientific  management,  in  practice,  has  the  ten- 
dency to  divide  the  workers  into  two  unequal  classes — the 
few  who  rise  to  managerial  positions,  and  the  many  who 
seem  bound  to  remain  task  workers  within  a  narrow  field. 
In  this,  it  does  not  differ  essentially  from  the  ordinary 
modern  industrial  organization  based  on  machine  production, 
except  that  perhaps  the  differentiation  is  more  quickly  and 
surely  attained. 

Distribution  of  Ability 

In  considering  the  issues  suggested  by  the  foregoing  state- 
ment, one  of  the  fundamental  questions  to  be  answered  con- 
cerns the  number  of  persons  who  are  fitted  to  undertake  work 
involving  a  high  degree  of  skill,  executive  responsibility, 
or  the  exercise  of  judgment  based  upon  observation  and  in- 
vestigation. The  records  available  from  psychological, 
medical,  and  educational  sources  seem  to  indicate- that  not  less 
than  one-quarter  of  our  working  population  is  unfitted  by 
reason  of  native  endowment  for  anything  more  than  unskilled 
or  semiskilled  occupations.  On  the  basis  of  "normal  fre- 
quency" a  determination  of  the  distribution  of  ability  has  been 
made  which  experience  shows  may  be  depended  upon  within 
reasonable  limits. 

If  the  entire  population  is  divided  into  five  groups  accord- 
ing to  mental  capacity,  the  distribution  is  estimated  to  be  as 
follows : 

From  2  to  5  per  cent  of  the  population  fall  into  the  low- 
grade  group  which  includes  the  mental  defectives.  Ap- 
proximately an  equal  number  have  abilities  or  attainments  of 


TRANSFERS   AND   PROMOTIONS  249 

such  a  high  order  as  to  place  them  in  the  group  with  those 
who  may  be  termed  geniuses.  Nearly  50  per  cent  belong  in 
the  large  middle  group  of  dependable,  intelligent  persons. 
Above  this  group,  are  ranked  23  per  cent  of  somewhat  higher 
intelligence,  while  another  23  per  cent  with  abilities  less  than 
those  of  the  middle  group  can  only  be  depended  upon  for  the 
performance  of  routine  tasks.  Such  studies  as  the  research 
in  the  psychology  of  employed  minors,  carried  on  under  the 
supervision  of  Helen  Thompson  Woolley  in  the  Vocation 
Bureau  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  the  results  attained  in  testing  both 
children  and  adults  with  various  forms  of  the  Binet-Simon 
scale  for  measuring  intelligence,  and  the  applications  of 
standardized  test  material  to  the  work  of  elementary  schools, 
and  to  the  examination  of  recruits  for  the  United  States  Army, 
all  seem  to  bear  out  these  general  conclusions.1 

Physical  Fitness 

On  the  physical  basis  alone,  rejections  in  the  first  army 
draft  aggregated  66.5  per  cent  of  those  examined  by  local 
boards  after  the  first  call,  and  in  some  districts  rejections  ran 
all  the  way  from  40  to  77  per  cent. 

At  least  35  per  cent  of  the  total  rejected  by  the  local 
boards  were  in  poor  physical  condition,  and  of  those  passed 
and  re-examined  by  army  officers,  11.5  per  cent  were  rejected 
as  physically  unfit.  This  occurred  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
the  men  examined  were  between  the  ages  of  21  and  31  when 
they  should  have  been  in  the  height  of  physical  vigor. 

Of  82,936  enlisted  men  who  took  the  army  mental  tests, 
nearly  one-third  received  a  grade  of  C  or  less.  (See  Figure 
52.)  That  the  majority  of  these  men  were  unfit  for  leader- 
ship is  demonstrated  by  the  records  of  the  officers'  training 

1  Woolley,  Helen  Thompson,  "A  New  Scale  of  Mental  and  Physical  Measure- 
ments for  Adolescents,  and  Some  of  its  Uses."  The  Journal  of  Educational 
Psychology,  November,  1915.  See  also  Terman,  "The  Measurement  of  Intelligence," 
and  Holmes,  Henry  Wyman  and  others,  "A  Descriptive  Bibliography  of  Measure- 
ment in  Elementary  Subjects." 


250 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


D- 


Figure  52.     Distribution  of  Ratings  for  82,936  Enlisted  Men,  4,023  Corporals, 

3,393  Sergeants,  and  8,819  Officers 
Adapted  from  Army  Mental  Tests,  Washington,  D.  C.,  November  22,  1918,  pages  8  and  9- 


/ 

\     E 

>    C 

*    C 

C 

-    D 

» 

• 

1 

1 

i 

1 

I 

Per  Cent 

I 

1 

Success 

1 

o.tc; 

1 

I 

1,375 

Per  Cent 

Failure" 

Figure  53.     Graphic  Representation  of  Success  and  Failure  of  1,375  Men  in 

the  Officers'  Training  School 
Classified  according  to  rating  in  mental  tests. 


TRANSFERS   AND   PROMOTIONS  251 

schools.  Of  those  rated  below  C,  62.41  per  cent  were 
eliminated  in  the  non-commissioned  officers'  training  schools 
and  a  much  higher  proportion  in  the  officers'  training  schools. 
(See  Figure  53.) 

It  is  only  reasonable  to  assume  that  much  of  the  retarda- 
tion and  elimination  in  the  public  schools,  of  which  a  brief 
account  is  given  in  Chapter  II,  should  be  attributed  to  the 
presence  of  many  children  who  are  mentally  and  physically 
handicapped.  This  by  no  means  exonerates  the  school  for 
failing  to  offer  the  type  of  work  adapted  to  their  needs ;  it 
does,  however,  show  the  fallacy  of  placing  the  entire  blame 
upon  teachers  and  principals  who  are  making  the  most  of  the 
resources  at  their  command. 

Inertia  Among  Workmen 

Not  only  are  there  groups  of  persons  for  whom  promotion 
in  the  usual  sense  of  the  word  cannot  be  planned,  but  there 
are  also  many  individuals  whose  native  abilities  are  consider- 
able who  naturally  dislike  the  thought  of  increased  respon- 
sibility or  a  change  in  occupation  or  environment.  From  many 
points  of  view,  monotony  is  merely  a  relative  term.  A  task 
which  may  seem  monotonous  to  one  worker  presents  interest- 
ing variations  to  another  because  of  minor  changes  which 
occur  in  styles,  materials,  tools,  and  processes.  There  comes 
to  many  workers  in  mediocre  positions  a  joy  in  handling  high- 
grade  materials,  a  pleasure  in  creative  workmanship,  and  a 
satisfaction  in  helping  to  manufacture  a  product  economically 
valuable,  which  cannot  be  appreciated  by  the  ordinary  un- 
initiated outsider.  Promotion  ought,  for  these  persons,  to  be 
safeguarded  against  tendencies  to  create  dissatisfaction  or 
to  overstimulate  the  worker  where  nothing  is  to  be  gained 
and  much  is  to  be  lost  by  the  effort.  This  ought  not,  however, 
to  be  interpreted  in  any  sense  to  mean  that  nothing  can  be 
accomplished  for  these  groups  by  the  training  department. 


252  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

As  pointed  out  in  Chapter  I,  this  is  probably  the  darkest  area 
of  industrial  relations,  but  by  no  means  a  hopeless  one. 

'  •          f* 
"First-Class  Men" 

One  of  the  basic  principles  governing  the  selection,  promo- 
tion, and  transfer  of  workers  was  formulated  by  Frederick 
W.  Taylor  in  these  terms:  "When  an  establishment  has 
reached  an  advanced  stage  of  organization,  in  many  cases  a 
fifth  element  should  be  added,  namely,  the  task  should  be  made 
so  difficult  that  it  can  only  be  accomplished  by  first-class  men." 
In  answer  to  criticisms  arising  from  an  interpretation  of  "first- 
class  men"  according  to  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  term, 
thus  making  it  appear  that  unwise  speeding  and  unemploy- 
ment of  a  large  number  would  result  from  putting  the  prin- 
ciple into  practice,  Mr.  Taylor  offered  the  following  explana- 
tion in  a  hearing  before  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives : 

I  have  these  two  types  of  "second-class"  men  in  view; 
the  one  which  is  physically  able  to  do  the  work,  but  who 
refuses  to  do  it,  and  the  other  who  is  not  physically  or 
mentally  fitted  to  do  that  particular  kind  of  work,  or  who 
has  not  the  mental  caliber  for  this  particular  job.  These  are 
the  two  types  of  "second-class"  men. 

For  each  man  some  line  can  be  found  in  which  he  is 
"first-class."  There  is  work  for  each  type  of  man,  just,  for 
instance,  as  there  is  work  for  the  dray-horse  and  work  for 
the  trotting-horse,  and  each  of  these  types  is  first-class  for 
his  particular  kind  of  work.  There  is  no  one  kind  of  work, 
however,  that  suits  all  types  of  men. 

Analyzing  Each  Position 

Under  any  system  of  management,  two  steps  must  be 
taken  to  insure  an  appropriate  recognition  of  first-class 
service.  The  first  step  is  to  keep  systematic  records  of  every 
man's  achievement  and  progress  and  to  make  a  periodical 


TRANSFERS   AND   PROMOTIONS  253 

rating  of  his  ability  and  value  to  the  concern.  These  records 
are  of  such  importance  as  to  deserve  a  separate  chapter.  The 
next  step  is  to  study  work  and  wages  throughout  the  plant, 
analyzing  each  position  and  its  rewards  with  the  following 
ideals  in  mind: 

1.  A  standard  name  and  definition  for  every  position. 
Confusing   and   unnecessary   occupational   classifications   are 
probably  in  use.     The  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufac- 
turing Company  condensed  an  original  list  of  400  occupations 
to  170. 

2.  A  grading  of  occupations  into  a  small  number  of  groups 
according  to  the  technical  knowledge,  skill,  and  experience 
required  and  the  general  value  of  the  job  to  the  company. 
Five  to  seven  groups  have  been  found  sufficient  to  include  all 
employees   in  companies   employing   from   5,000   to   20,000 
persons. 

3.  Maximum  and  minimum  rates  fixed  for  each  grade  of 
position.    Advancement  may  take  place  in  three  ways : 

(a)  Increased  wages    (within  fixed  limits)   on  the 

same  job. 

(b)  Change  to  a  higher  grade  job  in  the  same  depart- 

ment. 

(c)  Transfer  to  a  higher  grade  job  in  another  depart- 

ment. 

4.  Continuous   consideration    of    wage   adjustments    and 
promotions  rather  than  leaving  them  to  the  first  of  the  year 
or  until  complaints  are  made. 

5.  Discovery,  from  a  study  of  the  fundamental  elements 
of  skill  and  knowledge  and  a  comparison  of  elements  common 
to  groups  or  grades  of  tasks,  of: 

(a)  The  natural  lines  or  drifts  of  promotions. 

(b)  The  training  necessary  to  prepare  for  advance- 

ment. 


254  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

6.  New  employees,  so  far  as  possible,  are  to  be  started 
on  the  lower  grade  positions.  This  assures: 

(a)  Better  quality  o»f  work  in  these  positions  since 

better  workers  accept  them,  knowing  that  they 
will  be  advanced  in  due  time. 

(b)  Longer  training  before  positions   of   responsi- 

bility   are    entered    and    better    selection    of 
executives. 

Standardized  Rates  and  Occupations 

Figures  54a  and  54b,  illustrate  the  method  of  record- 
ing standardized  rates  and  occupations  in  use  by  the  Westing- 
house  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company.  Each  foreman 
is  supplied  with  a  set  of  job  analysis  cards  which  give  the 
detailed  information  regarding  every  occupation  authorized 
for  his  department. 

The  general  method  of  grouping  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
following  classification  used  by  the  Willys-Overland  Company 
for  certain  positions  in  the  office  manager's  department  (1919) : 

Class  A — Basic  rate  $75  per  month. 

Experienced  telegraph  operators. 
Class  B — Basic  rate  $65  per  month. 

Night  janitors — 54  hours  per  week. 

Yard  men — 48  hours  per  week. 
Class  C — Basic  rate  $60  per  month. 

Experienced  stenographers  assigned  to  central  transcrip- 
tion division. 

Day  janitors — 44  hours  per  week. 
Class  D — Basic  rate  $55  per  month. 

Phonograph  operators  in  central  transcription  division. 

Stock  clerks  in  supply  division. 

Elevator  operators — 48  hours  per  week. 
Class  E — Basic  rate  $45  per  month. 

Telephone  operators  (girls). 

Mailroom  clerks  (boys  with  high  school  education,  eligible 
for  promotion  into  other  departments  as  junior  clerks). 


TRANSFERS  AND  PROMOTIONS 


255 


JOB  ANALYSIS 

Card  No... ..SeV™ ..;...Dept.^... ...„ 

Occupation  No... ; Class Name „.„. 

Type  of  Machine  Tool 

Employee  is  Rsquired  to  Operate 


o 


Requirements:  Physical,  Educational,  Experience,  Etc. 


Man  .'  |  Woman  |  White  |  Colored  

Ability  to 
Speak  English  —  ......;  

Ability  to 
Use  Templates  .... 

Tall  ...„  |  Short  |  Madium  
Minimum  Weight  ,..]  Aga  Limits  

Ability  to 
Raad  Engl  ish  
Ability  to 

Ability  to 
Use  Micrometer.. 
Ability  to 

Strength  and  enduranca  required 
is  more  than  avercga  . 

Rsad  Scale  „  
Ability  to 

Use  Prints  .....  
Ability  to 

Education  Required  „....  

Use  Jigs  

Ability  to 

Sat  up  own  work  . 

Usa  Gauges  

Typo  of  operative  \  Quick 

required  for  work/ Motioned |  Daliborate |  Patient |  Observant |  Qood  Memory.. 

Experience,  Time — Previous |  To  Learn „.  |  How  Taught .......................... 

Wag3  System :— Day  Work j  Premium |  Pieca  Work .„.  |  Group |  Task.... 

Tools  oparative  Should  own .....«.....*...... 


Figure  54.     (a)  Job  Specification  Card.     (Size  5^X4.) 

Original  on  thin  white  card,    punched  to  place  in  loose-leaf  folders.       Each  foreman  has 
file  for  the  jobs  in  his  own  department. 


NAT 

Work  Consists  of  fGive  na 

URE  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  WORK 

me  of  operation  and  nama  of  apparatus  'or  part.              \ 
is:—  Facing  Brush  Holder  Brackets,  Dipping  Coils,  'etc./ 

Workis(H3avy  1Liflht 

\  Wat  |Hot. 
Work  /Dust  JFurm 
Involves  \Standing  |  Sittir 
Approximate  number  engaged  on  t 
Remarks: 

|  Crane  Lift  |  Hand  Lift  |  Dirty  |  Repetition  
,.  \  Cold  |  Outside  |  Hard  for  Hands  

s           1  Acids               ..    1  Oils  1  Eye  Strain  
More  than 
g  |  Stooping  |  Raaching  ]  ordinary  accuracy  

lis  work  Men                    |  Women                      

o  

s~\ 

•  O'  

Figure  54. 

(b)  Job  Specification  Card  (reverse) 

256  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

Class  F — Basic  rate  $40  per  month. 

Central  file  clerks  (girls). 

Form  typists  (girls). 
Class  G — Basic  rate  $35  per"Vnonth  (minimum). 

Clerks    on    folding,    gathering,    enclosing,    and    mailing 
(girls). 

Messengers  (girls). 

Matrons  (women). 

Hindrances  to  Self-Improvement 

One  of  the  most  serious  criticisms  to  be  made  of  the  wage 
increases  effected  through  collective  bargaining  is  that  they 
are  not  evenly  or  justly  distributed.  There  is  rarely  any 
thorough  analysis  of  the  whole  situation  so  that  service  of 
equal  grade  receives  the  same  remuneration  in  every  depart- 
ment. Of  course,  the  fault  is  not  peculiar  to  closed  shops 
or  even  to  industry.  The  Ohio  State  Civil  Service  Commis- 
sion in  standardizing  specifications  for  positions  found  varia- 
tions as  great  as  $1,200  between  the  maximum  and  minimum 
paid  for  doing  the  same  grade  of  clerical  work.  No  reliable 
efficiency  records  were  maintained  and  promotions  were  based 
on  personal  preference  or  seniority.2 

Where  such  conditions  prevail,  the  major  incentive  to  take 
advantage  of  the  opportunities  for  self -improvement  offered 
by  a  training  department  is  destroyed.  It  is  easier  to  secure 
advancement  and  increased  wages  by  finding  another  job  than 
by  striving  to  prepare  for  advancement  or  to  improve  the 
quality  of  the  service  rendered. 

Plans  of  Promotions — Three-Position  Plan 

The  need  for  a  director  of  training  who  co-operates  with 
the  employment  department  in  rating  employees,  in  planning 
promotions,  and  in  devising  systematic  preparation  for  ad- 


2  "Standard    Specifications    for    Positions    in    the    Classified    Service   of   the    State 
of   Ohio,"    State    Civil    Service   Commission,    Columbus,    Ohio,    1917. 


TRANSFERS   AND   PROMOTIONS  257 

vancement,  is  further  evidenced  by  the  failure  of  the  best- 
known  systematic  methods  of  selecting  and  promoting  persons 
to  fill  executive  positions.  Much  attention  has  been  attracted 
by  the  'Three-Position  Plan  of  Promotion,"  devised  by  Frank 
B.  and  Lillian  M.  Gilbreth.  It  "considers  each  man  as  occupy- 
ing three  positions  in  the  organization,  and  considers  these 
three  positions  as  constantly  changing  in  an  upward  spiral, 
as  the  man  is  promoted."  Each  worker  teaches  a  man  in 
the  position  he  has  just  left  and  is  at  the  same  time  being 
instructed  in  the  duties  of  a  third  worker  who  occupies  the 
position  next  in  line  of  advancement.  Each  employee  is  thus 
at  the  same  time  an  instructor,  a  worker,  and  a  student.  The 
time  that  he  must  take  to  move  to  the  next  point  in  the 
spiral  depends  upon  his  ability  to  develop  efficiency  in  his  pupil 
and  his  own  aptitude  in  learning  the  duties  of  the  next  higher 
position. 

This  plan  is  open  to  the  objection  that  it  assumes  that 
every  worker  is  capable  of  being  an  instructor.  Furthermore, 
it  is  quite  contrary  to  the  present  tendency  to  relieve  workmen 
and  production  foremen  of  the  training  function.  There  is 
a  possibility,  however,  of  adapting  it  to  certain  kinds  of  work, 
particularly  positions  of  an  executive  nature,  where  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  give  all  of  the  necessary  training  through  formal  classes 
or  special  instructors. 

The  "Understudy"  Plan 

The  so-called  "understudy"  plan  whereby  each  executive 
selects  one  or  more  individuals  who  are  trained  to  succeed 
him  also  has  several  manifest  disadvantages.  Assistants  are 
usually  selected  because  they  supplement  the  ability  of  the 
executive,  or  because  they  are  prompt  and  accurate  in  carrying 
out  instructions.  The  really  necessary  qualities  of  leadership 
are  neglected  in  choosing  the  understudy  and  they  are  not 
often  developed  by  his  experience. 


^58  TRAINING  INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

The  "Next  Step" 

Planning  promotions  has  too  frequently  meant  a  well- 
proportioned  schematic  arrangement  which  merely  outlined 
the  steps  leading  toward  important  executive  positions  at  the 
top  of  the  ladder.  In  actual  practice,  transfers  and  promo- 
tions rarely  take  place  along  these  theoretical  lines,  nor  is  it 
often  desirable  that  they  should.  Once  the  tasks  in  an  or- 
ganization have  been  analyzed  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
individual  worker's  duties  and  responsibilities,  and  a  classifica- 
tion and  grading  of  positions  completed,  the  possibilities  for 
advantageous  occupational  adjustments  stand  revealed.  Em- 
ployees can  then  be  advanced  according  to  related  lines  of 
work  and  from  lower  to  higher  grade  positions.  Departmental 
lines  and  the  hope  of  attaining  some  remote  goal  become  less 
important.  In  "Labor  Goodwill,"  John  R.  Commons  says: 

Interest  in  one's  work  does  not  depend  on  a  remote 
expectation  of  reaching  the  top.  It  is  the  next  step  that  is 
interesting.  The  next  step  means  accomplishment;  means 
overcoming  obstacles  that  are  not  hopeless,  means  initiative, 
means  thinking  on  the  job.  To  the  mere  "intellectual"  who 
ponders  over  the  labor  problem,  there  is  no  hope  if  there  is 
no  room  at  the  top.  Hence  efforts  to  interest  workers  even 
in  the  next  step  are  despaired  of.  To  the  business  man  and 
engineer  whose  opinions  are  formed  in  mastering  the 
physical  sciences,  the  worker  is  often  preferred  who  does  not 
think  or  talk  back.  But  to  the  educator  it  is  these  very 
qualities  which  others  reject  that  are  his  problem  to  be 
worked  out.  They  are  the  psychological  problems  of  in- 
dustry. If  industry  has  lessened  the  chances  of  promotion 
it  is  the  educator's  business  to  open  them  up  again.  He  must 
work  out  lines  of  advancement  that  may  serve  as  a  substitute 
at  least  for  the  lost  chances  of  promotion. 

Acquainting  Employees  with  Plan 

In  considering  advancement  with  employees,  stress  will 
naturally  be  laid  upon  ability  and  achievement  as  the  primary 


TRANSFERS   AND   PROMOTIONS  259 

considerations  upon  which  rating  will  depend.  Provided  this 
fact  is  emphasized,  and  provided  employees  are  warned  against 
the  exploitation  of  opportunities  which  are  largely  imaginary, 
there  is  no  valid  objection  to  the  practice  of  systematically 
acquainting  them  with  the  channels  and  the  methods  of 
promotion. 

Among  the  plans  for  giving  such  information  which  are 
in  successful  use  by  various  companies,  the  following  appear 
to  be  especially  helpful: 

1.  Conferences  with  new  employees  at  the  time  of  hiring 

or  when  they  are  followed  up  by  the  employment 
department  after  beginning  work.  Job  specifications 
and  charts  showing  the  lines  of  promotion  help  in 
making  definite,  concrete  statements. 

2.  Group  meetings  with  lectures  and  discussions  on  effi- 

ciency, better  methods,  and  preparation  for  advance- 
ment. 

3.  Announcement  of  vacancies  with  clear  statements  of 

the  necessary  qualifications. 

4.  Distribution  of  pamphlets  descriptive  of  the  work  of 

the  company  and  containing  standard  lists  of  occupa- 
tions, job  specifications  written  in  popular  form,  and 
discussions  of  the  opportunities  open  for  self-im- 
provement. 

5.  Indication  of  logical  promotion  lines  when  an  employee 

is  encouraged  to  undertake  a  special  course  of  study 
or  enter  a  training  class. 

6.  Announcement  of  promotions  in  the  plant  journal  or 

house  organ,  giving  brief  life  histories  of  specially 
significant  cases. 

Vocational  Guidance — The  Part  of  School  and  Industry 

The  relation  of  school  and  industry  to  the  broad  problems 
of  vocational  guidance,  as  they  have  been  discussed  in  this 


260  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

and  the  preceding  chapter,   may  be   summarized  under  the 
following  topics: 

For  the  school,  this  work  implies : 

1.  Broadening  the  child's  occupational  horizon  through 

an  educative  process. 

2.  Assistance  and  advice  in  selecting  a  vocation  and  mak- 

ing the  right  preparation  for  it. 

3.  Placement. 

4.  Employment  supervision. 

For  industry,  vocational  guidance  implies: 

1.  Careful  initial  selection  of  workers. 

2.  Supervision  of  transfers  and  promotions  in  the  light 

of  personal  qualifications. 

3.  Records  and  objective  rating  of  all  employees. 

The  technical  problems  involved  in  this  work  are  already 
fairly  well  formulated,  but  the  administrative  details  are  not 
yet  completely  worked  out. 


CHAPTER  XV 

RATING  EMPLOYEES 

Necessity  of  Rating  Method 

The  efficiency  of  any  promotion  scheme  depends  in  large 
part  upon  the  availability  of  complete  records  regarding  each 
individual  in  the  organization.  Even  in  companies  where  em- 
ployment management  practice  is  fairly  well  standardized,  it 
is  uncommon  to  find  any  objective  method  for  determining 
the  relative  abilities  of  those  who  comprise  the  rank  and  file 
of  the  organization.  In  concerns  where  less  attention  has 
been  given  to  keeping  personnel  records  there  is  usually  no 
source  to  which  one  can  turn  for  information  upon  which 
to  base  wage  increases,  decisions  as  to  transfers  or  promotions, 
the  selection  of  persons  to  fill  emergency  positions,  or  recom- 
mendations to  other  employers. 

As  more  provisions  are  made  for  training  employees,  and 
as  the  necessity  for  promotion  machinery  becomes  more 
urgent  because  of  the  company's  increase  in  size  and  the  con- 
sequent loss  of  personal  contact  between  workmen  and  higher 
executives,  the  need  for  some  form  of  merit-rating  or  record 
of  achievement  becomes  increasingly  apparent.  In  what  fol- 
lows some  account  will  be  given  of  experiments  in  this  direc- 
tion which  have  proved  satisfactory  in  various  concerns,  and 
certain  principles,  outgrowths  for  the  most  part  of  psychol- 
ogical research  and  educational  experience,  will  be  set  forth. 

Rating  Apprentices 

i.  Brown  and  Sharpe  Company.  Nearly  all  apprentice  or 
corporation  schools  have  some  formal  method  of  rating  or 

261 


262  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

grading  their  apprentices.  This  is  necessary  not  only  to  weed 
out  undesirable  students  but  also  to  give  some  basis  for  check- 
ing up  those  who  are'  failing  irr  their  work  in  order  that  they 
may  be  given  individual  instruction.  Thus  the  apprentice 
school  maintained  by  the  Brown  and  Sharpe  Manufacturing 
Company  of  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  requires  from  the 
foreman  a  report  for  each  apprentice  under  his  charge  on 
industry,  workmanship,  deportment,  and  judgment.  In  case 
the  apprentice  is  not  doing  satisfactory  work,  a  special  report 
is  made  in  the  manner  indicated  in  Figures  55a  and  55b. 
Whenever  such  a  deficiency  report  is  received  by  the  super- 
visor of  apprentices,  he  either  transfers  the  boy  to  some  other 
job  or  endeavors  through  special  instruction  to  bring  him  up 
to  a  passing  standard. 

2.  Westingkouse  Company.     The  Westinghouse  Electric 
and  Manufacturing  Company,  of  East  Pittsburgh,  Pennsyl- 
vania, requires  department  heads  to  render  a  report  on  appren- 
tices under  their  care,  using  a  form  (Figure  56)  which  supple- 
ments a  more  complete  apprentice  record  maintained  by  the 
training  school.    It  includes  marks  for  attendance,  speed,  neat- 
ness, accuracy,  memory,  reasoning  power,  observation,  effort, 
and  aptitude  for  academic  classes  in  drawing,  English,  and 
mathematics,  as  well  as  a  tabulation  of  the  amount  of  time 
spent  on  each  class  of  operation  and  total  earnings  on  produc- 
tive work. 

Another  firm  makes  use  of  the  form  shown  in  Figure  57, 
upon  which  is  plotted  the  daily  wage,  thus  giving  a  graphic 
picture  of  the  development  of  the  earning  capacity  of  the 
student. 

3.  Plan  of  H.  F.  Markus.    The  form  shown  in  Figure  58 
was  devised  by  H.  F.  Markus,  a  teacher  of  electrical  work 
at  the  Arsenal  Technical  Schools,  Indianapolis.     It  gives  a 
daily  record  of  the  pupil  for  five  weeks,  together  with  the 
necessary  identification  data.     During  the  shop  period,  each 


RATING   EMPLOYEES 


263 


APPRENTICE  PIECE-WORK  DEFICIENCY  REPORT 

This  form  must  be  filled  out  for  all  contracts  on  which  the  apprentice  does  not  exceed, 
his  hour  pay  and  forwarded  to  the  Supervisor  of  Apprentices  at  once. 

Name.._.U..-X. 
Name  of  Part 

Drawing  No. 

Rate... Q.6L_ Amoun*3..5C -...HoursJUkT- R*te  Per 


FOREMAN 


Figure  55.     (a)  Form  for  Report  on  Apprentices.     (Size  6X4.) 

Used  by  Brown  and  Sharpe  Company  to  report  progress  of  apprentices. 


PREVIOUS  RECORDS  ON  THIS  JOB  FOR  COMPARISON 

Name 

Number 
of  Pieces 

Rate 

Amount 

Hours 

Average 
per  Hour 

T.  Haworth  

155 
138 
165 

•05 
•055 
•  055 

$7-75 
$7-59 
$9-o8 

30 
19.4 
25-3 

.258 
•391 
•358 

G.  M.  Mitson,  (man)..  . 

J.  Johnson  (man)  .... 

Figure  55.     (b)  Form  for  Report  on  Apprentices  (reverse). 


264  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


A^PRENTI<3E  RECORD 

WESTINGHOUSE  ELECTRIC  &  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY 
Name Section 


Machine  Tool  or  Work 


Speed.     The  rate  at  which  he  works  as  compared  with  the  speed 

expected. 
Workmanship.     The  grade  of  the  finished  work  as  compared 

to  standard  practice. 
Attitude.     Personal  interest  shown  in  his  work  and  his  conduct 

toward  superiors  and  fellow-workmen. 
Knowledge.     The  amount  of  general  information  he  has,  in  line 

with  his  work. 


A  =  Very  Good  B  =  Average  C — Unsatisfactory 


In  what  does  this  man  excel? , 
In  what  is  he  deficient? .  . 


Signed Date. 


NOTE — Send  to  Educational  Department 


Figure  56.     Apprentice  Record  Form 

Used  by  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company. 

pupil  keeps  his  card  in  a  special  pocket  in  his  tool-box  so 
that  it  is  easily  available  for  reference.  A  daily  record  of 
the  kind  of  work  done  is  kept  on  the  reverse  of  the  card  by 
the  student.  At  the  end  of  the  period,  the  instructor  gives 


RATING   EMPLOYEES 


265 


Fact, 

Date 

Day 
2.50 

3.00 
1.00 
0. 

tion                Started 

8.50 
2.00 

1.00 
0 

i  &   a   *   0*  £ 

Daily  Ave 

1       6T       if     \o  1 

cage 

)1    13    14   15  I 

,   (7    /S 

/    a. 

»  If  5    £,    7   6 

Figure  57.     Form  for  Charting  Earnings  of  Apprentices 


DAILY   RECORD  CARD   | 1 


SCHOOL 

sua/KT 

BENCH 


-ROOM     r    HOUR  7r  r  , 


:EPORT  Mg  /r  TERM  ENDING 


<OQU 


a  aaa  a  aanna  aanan  aaaaa  oaaana 


•  • 


Figure  58.     Record  Card  for  Shop  Students.     (Size  5X3.) 

Used  in  the  Arsenal  Technical  Schools,  Indianapolis.     Courtesy  o  f  Professor  D.  J.  McDonald, 

Indiana  University. 


266  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

a  grade  on  each  of  the  four  points  mentioned,  the  marks 
being  indicated  by  a  punch.  Exceptionally  good  marks  are 
shown  by  a  plus  sign,  and  a  very,  poor  record  by  a  vertical  line. 
In  computing  the  total  number  of  points,  A+  counts  10; 
A,  9;  B,  8;  C,  7;  and  D,  5  points.  "Absence"  counts 
O,  and  "demerits"  count  —8.  All  the  grades  for  a  given 
factor  are  added  up,  as  for  example  "workmanship"  which 
totals  126;  since  workmanship  has  a  value  of  40  per  cent, 
the  pupil  receives  40  per  cent  of  126,  or  50.4  points.  The 
total  is  secured  by  treating  each  factor  in  the  same  way  and 
adding  the  several  totals. 

This  form  has  the  disadvantage  ol  requiring  too  much 
bookkeeping  in  finding  the  totals,  but  it  suggests  a  method 
by  which  the  daily  rating  can  be  given  with  economy  of  time 
and  with  entire  frankness  on  the  part  of  the  instructor.  The 
extra  space  at  the  right  of  the  card  may  be  used  for  recording 
special  grades  on  projects  or  items  to  be  added  or  subtracted 
on  account  of  absence  or  special  work. 

Rating  Department  Store  Employees 

Many  of  the  department  stores  have  developed  a  technique 
quite  as  interesting  and  valuable  as  that  which  is  to  be  found 
in  the  apprentice  schools.  As  a  rule  two  fundamental  matters 
are  used  as  the  basis  for  rating  salespersons — the  number  of 
errors  and  the  amount  of  sales.  It  is  clear  that  training,  length 
of  service,  the  location  of  the  department,  assistance  from 
superiors,  and  the  season  of  the  year  are  only  a  few  of  many 
factors  which  may  affect  the  efficiency  of  an  employee  in  a 
retail  establishment  through  no  fault  of  his  own. 

i.  Lord  and  Taylor.  At  Lord  and  Taylor's  in  New  York 
City  recognition  has  been  made  of  this  point  of  view  and  a 
better  basis  for  rating  has  been  devised.  The  store  co-operates 
with  the  public  schools  in  maintaining  continuation  classes  for 
all  persons  under  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  in  addition  carries 


RATING   EMPLOYEES  267 

on  a  considerable  number  of  educational  activities.  The  head 
of  the  instruction  department  has  been  selected  to  supervise 
the  rating  of  certain  employees.  This  official  interviews  each 
person  hired  and  arranges  for  him  to  be  sent  for  a  period  of 
preliminary  training  in  the  "System  Room,"  where  from  one 
to  two  hours'  instruction  is  given  in  the  use  of  forms  and 
some  time  is  spent  in  discussing  store  policies  and  standards. 
Those  who  enter  the  sales  force  come  back  for  three  succeed- 
ing mornings  for  an  hour's  instruction.  All  the  younger 
workers  are  assigned  to  some  one  of  the  regular  classes  after 
passing  this  period  of  preliminary  instruction  in  store  methods. 
2.  Reporting  Errors.  A  complex  system  of  reporting 
errors  has  been  built  up  around  which  much  of  the  instruction 
centers.  For  each  department  there  is  a  classified  list  of  pos- 
sible errors,  each  room  being  denoted  by  number.  A  total 
of  nearly  115  different  forms  of  complaints  and  mistakes  has 
been  listed.  Anyone  who  discovers  that  an  error  has  been 
made  reports  it  at  once  on  a  special  blank  provided  for  the 
purpose.  A  bonus  of  five  cents  for  each  error  discovered 
is  allowed  to  packers,  clerks,  and  others  who  are  in  a  position 
to  detect  a  considerable  number  of  errors.  The  head  of  the 
instruction  department  and  certain  of  the  instructors  hold 
private  conferences  or  meet  employees  in  groups  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  instruction  in  the  best  methods  of  avoiding 
blunders.  Special  complaint  and  service  meetings,  presided 
over  by  the  head  of  the  instruction  department,  are  held  in 
the  several  departments  at  8 130  in  the  morning.  It  takes 
about  two  months  to  complete  the  round  of  the  store  at  the 
rate  of  four  meetings  per  week.  In  addition  to  talks  based 
on  summaries  of  the  errors  for  the  department,  these  con- 
ferences also  consider  general  salesmanship  principles  or  the 
special  problems  of  the  group  in  question.  To  assist  in  this 
work,  a  weekly  tabulation  is  made  in  the  instruction  depart- 
ment of  all  errors  reported  from  each  division  of  the  store. 


26S 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 


3.  Rating  by  Floormen  and  Buyers.  The  form  shown  in 
Figure  59  is  sent  out  monthly  to  all  floormen  and  buyers, 
who  rate  each  individual  coming  under  their  attention.  These 
reports  are  then  transcribed,  the  one  from  the  floormen  in 
red,  and  that  from  the  buyer  in  black,  to  the  loose-leaf  ledger 
sheet,  part  of  which  is  shown  in  Figure  60.  The  report  on 


If  in  your  opinion  the 
Salesperson's  rating  is 
Excellent,  mark  "5' 
Good,            "      'V 
Fair,              "      "3' 
Poor,             "      "i1 
Bad,              "      "o' 

HEALTH  | 

APPEARANCE 

MANNER  ] 

INITIATIVE  | 

INDUSTRY 

ACCURACY  | 

LOYALTY 

CO-OPERATION  j 

RESPONSIBILITY  j 

w 

6 
M 

_) 

o 

DEPT. 
DATE 

Names  of  Employees 

Figure  59.     Form  for  Reporting  on  Department  Store  Salespersons 
Used  by  Lord  and  Taylor's,  New  York  City.       Filled  out  by  floormen  and  buyers. 

the  employee's  health  is  secured  from  the  medical  department, 
"industry"  is  rated  from  the  number  of  sales,  and  "accuracy" 
is  largely  a  question  of  the  number  of  errors  which  the  em- 
ployee makes. 

When  this  method  was  first  instituted,  the  results  were 
quite  unsatisfactory,  but  through  a  period  of  instruction  in 
which  the  floormen  and  buyers  were  brought  together  for  con- 
ferences and  were  led  to  see  the  importance  of  their  rating 
and  were  helped  to  arrive  at  common  standards,  the  reports 
were  greatly  improved.  As  a  rule  the  foremen  send  in  better 
reports  than  do  the  buyers,  since  they  are  more  likely,  because 
of  their  experience,  to  look  for  service  from  the  employee 
instead  of  sales  alone. 


RATING   EMPLOYEES 


269 


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270  TRAINING  INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

Rating  Operators 

I.  Western  Union.  In  some  respects  the  efforts  of  the 
Western  Union  Telegraph  Cctfnpany  and  of  certain  of  the 
telephone  systems  to  discover  errors  and  to  rate  employees 
are  not  unlike  the  methods  in  use  in  the  department  stores. 
Particularly  with  telegraph  transmission  by  the  Morse  method, 
examination  for  quality  of  production  must  be  made  at  the 
actual  time  the  message  is  transmitted,  as  a  complete  inspection 
cannot  be  readily  effected  at  a  later  date.  In  this  respect,  at 
least,  the  problem  differs  from  that  of  a  factory,  where  the 
quality  of  production  can  be  easily  determined  after  the  com- 
pletion of  the  manufacturing  process,  and  resembles  the  con- 
dition in  the  department  store,  where  the  fault  of  the  sales- 
person may  He  very  largely  in  his  manner  of  treating  a 
customer,  thus  making  it  necessary  to  base  any  rating  upon 
direct  observation  at  the  time  a  sale  is  attempted. 

In  order  to  secure  unbiased  results  the  •  Western  Union 
Telegraph  Company  makes  its  observations  of  each  operator's 
work  secretly  in  a  specially  equipped  observing-room.  The 
fact  that  observations  are  made  is  a  matter  of  general  knowl- 
edge to  all  operators,  but  the  time  at  which  they  are  observed 
individually  is  kept  secret  and  so  varied  as  to  insure  repre- 
sentative results.  Errors  and  potential  errors,  deviations  from 
established  operating  practice,  wastes  of  time  or  failure  to 
challenge  obvious  errors  of  others,  are  noted  on  the  operator's 
record  from  the  observation  of  the  actual  sending  and  receiv- 
ing. (See  Figure  61.) 

The  supervisors  are  kept  advised  of  the  results  for  the 
operators  who  are  under  their  authority,  and  at  intervals  the 
operators  are  shown  their  records  and  suggestions  are  made 
as  to  ways  in  which  their  work  can  be  improved.  It  is  the 
belief  of  the  company  that  employees  should  be  advised  of 
favorable  results  as  well  as  those  which  are  not  satisfactory. 
Attendance  is  recorded  in  detail  and  closely  associated  with 


RATING   EMPLOYEES 


271 


THE    WESTERN     UNION     TELEGRAPH    COMPANY. 

MOR.5E  OPERATOfc'5   MONTHLY  HECORD. 

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Figure  61.     Form  for  Recording  Efficiency  of  Telegraph  Operators.     (Size 


this  is  the  working  capacity  of  the  employee  as  shown  by  the 
number  of  hours  at  work,  the  total  production,  and  the  average 
hourly  rate.  These  records  form  the  basis  of  all  salary  in- 
creases and  promotions.  The  supervisor  is  asked  for  a  recom- 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

mendation  on  general  points  regarding  the  employee's  conduct 
and  qualifications,  but  the  observer's  record  is  used  to  de- 
termine the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  work  performed. 

2.  Bell  Telephone  System.  No  general  practice  of  this 
kind  is  now  in  effect  in  the  Bell  system.  Records  of  attendance 
of  employees  are  kept  regularly  for  all  except  supervisors, 
managers,  and  officials.  New  employees  in  the  clerical, 
operating,  and  planning  departments,  which  include  95  per 
cent  of  the  total  force,  are  generally  given  a  more  or  less 
thorough  medical  examination  before  employment.  Inspection 
of  the  work  of  both  plant  and  traffic  employees  is  done  for 
instruction  and  training  purposes ;  and  although  the  results  of 
such  inspection  are,  of  course,  a  factor  in  considering  the 
advancement  of  employees,  such  records  are  neither  made  nor 
used  for  the  purpose  of  deciding  promotions  or  wage  increases. 
With  respect  to  the  operators'  wages,  increases  are  based 
almost  wholly  on  the  length  of  service  and  the  general  satis- 
faction given  by  their  work,  while  promotions  are  based  en- 
tirely upon  fitness  for  greater  responsibility  according  to  the 
judgment  of  responsible  officials. 

Rating  Clerks 

i.  State  of  New  York.  Several  attempts  have  been  made 
to  standardize  the  work  done  by  clerks  and  stenographers. 
An  example  of  such  a  rating  is  offered  by  the  form  shown 
in  Figure  62  used  by  the  State  Industrial  Commission,  Albany, 
New  York.  Four  ratings  are  made  each  year  by  the  heads  of 
bureaus  and  divisions  for  each  person  coming  under  their 
observation.  These  reports  are  filed  in  the  office  of  the  secre- 
tary and  after  receiving  his  approval  are  submitted  to  the 
employees  for  examination.  If  an  employee  feels  aggrieved, 
he  may  appeal  to  the  Committee  on  Review  at  any  time  within 
ten  days.  The  Committee  on  Review  consists  of  nine  officers 
of  the  State  Industrial  Commission,  including  the  Secretary 


RATING   EMPLOYEES 


273 


EFFICIENCY  RATING  CARD 
1917-1918 
NAME                                   .  .     TITT-R  

SALARY 

BUREAU                                .     Drv 

ISION 

NOTE:    Use  no  intermediate  percentages.     Ratings  above  or  below  standard  must  be 
explained  on  back  of  card.     (Use  black  ink.) 

Factors 
to  be  Rated 

Fixed 
Percent- 
ages 

Ratings  for  periods  Ending 

1917 
12/31 

1918 
3/31 

1918 
6/30 

1918 
9/30 

QUANTITY 
To  include 
Volume  of  work 
Industrv 
Speed 

Far  above  standard 
Above  standard 
Standard 
Below  standard 
Far  below  standard 

44 

$ 
11 

QUALITY 
To  include 
Thoroughness 
Accuracy 
Neatness 
Orderliness 

Far  above  standard 
Above  standard 
Standard 
Below  standard 
Far  below  standard 

44 
40 
36 
32 
28 

PERSONALITY 
To  include 
Appearance 
Tact 
Willingness 
Courtesy 

Above  standard 
Standard 
Below  standard 

12 

8 
4 

Total  

(To  be  filled  in  by  the  Committee  on 
Review  if  rating  is  modified) 
(Red  Ink)                  Total 

Demerits 
Demerits  for 
Lateness  and  Absence 

Percentage 
Deducted 

(To  be  filled  m  by  the  Secretary) 
(Red  Ink) 

Final  Rating 

CERTIFI 
The  ratings  were  made  under  my  directions 
and  are  hereby  approved. 
Quarter  ending  12/31/17 
Quarter  ending    3/31/18 
Quarter  ending    6/30/18 
Quarter  ending    9/30/18 

Head  of  Bureau  or  Division 

CATIONS 

The  ratings  hereon  are  modified  as  above. 

Quarter  ending  12/31/17 
Quarter  ending    3/31/18 
Quarter  ending    6/30/18 
Quarter  ending    9/30/18 

Chairman  Committee  on  Review 

Figure  62.     Rating  Scale  for  Office  Employees 

Used  by  State  Industrial  Commission,  Albany,  N.  Y.     Reverse  side  of  the  rating   card 
contains  space  for  explanations  for  each  quarter  of  the  year. 


274 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


o    o  o    o 

EMPLOYEE'S  REVIEW  BLANK 


NAME — Claw Position 

Department '..» ....  DmMon , Section ; 

Date  Appointment '... ,.,.w. Date  Birth 

Present  Annual  Salary  $ -,....  ••<>••• Maximum  for  Position  $ 

Dateof  laft  Increase • Times  late  absent  during  past  twelvemonths 

DUTIES 

Supervise*               ' w.e«*«tUAf»4i««™»wg«L^*Or-»B"molt "Snags- 
Analyze*.... Assembles 

Audit, .-..  Tabulates 

Approve. 

Translates ..Typewrite* 

Investigate..-; 

Inspect. 

Check. • • File» 

Dictate..  ... '•  Operate. 

Prepare. 
Review. 
Compare. 

WORK:  Accuracy Appearance.. ....Amount  Accomplished General  Ability 

MENTALITY:  Intelligence .....Memory Initiative.... Alertnea. 

Reliability Quickness  to  Learn r... Interest  in  Work Adaptability a 

DEPORTMENT:  Attention  to  Work Courteousnes.      Peraonal  NeatneM 

HOTI:  .ATI  *.evt  *.  rottew.:         t  MCANINO  -A.OVB  TM«   AvtRAOt.-  *  HIANIMO   -AvtRAOt.- 

.    MCANINO    ".CtOW    AVIRAOC." 

as  to  holts,  bad  habit*  etc.* 

Recommend  increase  in  above  ca^  to  $. 

Recommend  change  of  Class  from  

Approved  Meeting- •* .4 *•*•«%»••«•••••••»••••• 

Approved. . — ~— •  —^  ^i-;; 


Figtire  63.     Review  Blank  for  Employees'  Ratings.     (Size  8^X10%.) 
Used  by  a  life  insurance  company  for  ratings  made  by  section  chiefs. 


RATING   EMPLOYEES  275 

and  the  Director  of  the  Employment  Bureau.  If  upon  appeal 
the  efficiency  rating  is  not  revised  or  modified  by  the  com- 
mittee, it  stands  approved.  Demerits  are  given  for  unexcused 
lateness  or  absence,  and  i  per  cent  is  deducted  from  the  final 
efficiency  rating  for  over  six  demerits. 

2.  Equitable  Life  Assurance  Company.    Clerks  in  the  em- 
ploy of  the  Equitable  Life  Assurance  Company  are  divided 
into  five  classifications,  each  classification  receiving  a  specified 
amount.     Ratings  are  originally  made  to  the  head  of  the 
department  by  representative  section  chiefs  and  from  these 
ratings  review  blanks  (Figure  63)  are  filled  out  by  the  head 
of  the  department.  Whenever  a  clerk  reaches  the  maximum  for 
the  class  for  which  he  is  employed,  he  is  rated  as  being  eligible 
for  advancement  to  the  next  class,  either  in  his  own  or  some 
other  department.     Executives  in  authority  try  to  keep  the 
lines  of  promotion  constantly  open  and  to  weed  out  those  who 
do  not  qualify  for  advancement. 

3.  Norton  Grinding  Company.     The  simplest  expedient 
for  rating  operatives  in  common  use  is  that  of  sending  a 
special  form  to  the  foreman,  upon  which  the  employee  is  rated 
on  several  general  characteristics.    The  Norton  Grinding  Com- 
pany at  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  carries  this  a  step  further 
by  asking  for  a  rating  from  the  foreman  which  is  supple- 
mented by  a  rating  given  by  a  representative  of  the  employ- 
ment department.     The  points  covered  are  "Principal  Work 
Done  Since  Last  Report,"  "Adapted  to  Work,"  "Sufficiently 
Trained,"  "Attitude  Toward  Work,"  "Capable  of  Filling  Bet- 
ter Position,"  "Special  Aptitude,"  "Promptness,"  "Accuracy," 
"Capacity  for  Team- Work." 


CHAPTER  XVI 

STANDARDS  FOR  RATING  SCHEMES 

Elements  of  Correct  Rating  Method 

It  is  apparent  that  several  difficulties  stand  in  the  way 
of  maintaining  records  which  will  adequately  serve  the  pur- 
poses outlined  in  the  last  chapter.  To  decide  upon  the  matters 
which  should  become  a  part  of  a  permanent  record  is  not 
easy,  nor  can  the  foremen  and  department  heads  in  the  usual 
establishment  be  persuaded  to  agree  upon  standards  of  judg- 
ment without  first  laying  a  considerable  educational  founda- 
tion for  their  guidance. 

As  a  rule  the  individual  record  is  left  as  a  matter  of  per- 
sonal responsibility  with  the  foremen  or  department  heads. 
Certain  records  are  likely  to  be  on  file  in  the  employment 
department,  such  as  the  medical  examination  record.  The 
rating  as  to  attendance  and  earnings  is  kept  by  the  foreman. 
Aside  from  these  items  the  foreman  is  more  than  likely  to 
fail  to  keep  any  written  account  which  is  at  all  dependable. 
All  this  leads  to  confusion  in  record-keeping  and  a  division 
of  responsibility  in  arranging  promotions,  transfers,  or  wage 
increases. 

The  most  difficult  problem  is  probably  that  of  discovering 
a  series  of  matters  regarding  which  a  record  can  be  made 
which  will  conform  to  the  following  requirements: 

i.  The  record  must  be  objective  and  capable  of  standardiza- 
tion ;  that  is,  it  must  not  be  open  to  wide  variations  owing  to 
prejudice  or  personal  opinion,  and  it  must  be  capable  of  being 
measured  in  terms  of  some  standard  of  measurement.  The 
earnings  on  piecework  or  the  record  of  attendance  offer  ex- 

276 


STANDARDS   FOR   RATING   SCHEMES  277 

amples  of  records  of  this  kind.  They  are  readily  interpreted, 
and  it  is  possible  to  enumerate  them  without  a  chance  of 
serious  error. 

2.  It  should  be  possible  to  compile  the  record  without  too 
great  an  outlay  of  expense  for  clerical  assistance. 

3.  The  system  of  marking  should  be  readily  intelligible 
both  to  employees  and  executives.     It  should  be  accessible  to 
the  person  rated  and  should  inform  him  as  to  his  success  or 
failure  in  terms  of  his  daily  routine. 

The  following  list  is  suggested  as  offering  examples  of 
matters  which  in  the  main  conform  to  these  standards: 

1.  Attendance.    Includes  record  of  absence  and  tardiness, 

with  reasons  where  excuses  are  presented. 

2.  Length  of  service. 

3.  Record  of  production.    May  include^earnings  on  piece- 

work, sales,  or  the  amount  of  work  accomplished. 

4.  Health  record.     Includes  the  preliminary  medical  ex- 

amination with  any  subsequent  treatments  or  ex- 
aminations, together  with  lost  time  due  to  illness  or 
accidents. 

5.  Suggestions  or  initiative.    A  list  of  constructive  criti- 

cisms or  suggestions  made  by  the  employees. 

6.  Errors.     A  record  of  mistakes  or  waste  of  material. 

7.  Maintenance  of  tools  or  machinery  used  by  employee. 

Includes  a  record  of  accident  or  breakage.  Some 
companies  having  a  stable  labor  force  of  skilled 
operators  keep  a  maintenance  account  for  each 
machine  which  shows  the  operator's  relative  effi- 
ciency. 

8.  Department  or  job  transfers.    The  number  of  changes 

from  one  position  to  another,  together  with  the 
reasons  for  transfer. 

9.  Discipline.     An  account  of  any  complaints  made  by 

fellow-employees  or  supervisors,  together  with  the 


278  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

disposition  of  each  case.  May  include  record  se- 
cured from  outside  sources  of  misbehavior  outside 
of  the  plant. 

10.  Leadership.    Record  of  positions  held  or  responsibili- 

ties accepted,  such  as  special  work  on  committees, 
employees'  association,  or  on  similar  work  outside 
of  company. 

11.  Training  or  education.     A  statement  of  preliminary 

education  plus  any  instruction  received  after  enter- 
ing the  company's  employ,  such  as  attendance  at 
evening  classes,  correspondence  courses,  special  trips, 
conventions,  and  systematic  reading. 

Plan  of  National  Cash  Register  Company 

The  National  Cash  Register  Company  has  endeavored  to 
meet  some  of  these  requirements  in  its  practice,  as  the  follow- 
ing account,  furnished  by  an  executive  of  the  company  in- 
dicates : 

We  keep  careful  records  of  attendance  of  each  employee, 
and  when  he  is  being  considered  for  promotion  or  wage  or 
salary  increase  his  attendance  record  is  consulted. 

We  have  had  a  suggestion  system  in  operation  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  it  has  accomplished  much  in  the  way  of 
stimulating  our  employees  in  thinking  along  original  lines. 
All  employees  are  urged  to  send  in  suggestions  and  com- 
plaints. The  employment  manager  keeps  a  list  of  prize 
winners  in  the  suggestion  contests,  and  when  there  is  a 
vacancy  for  which  two  men  of  equal  ability  are  being  con- 
sidered, their  records  of  adopted  suggestions  are  taken  into 
consideration. 

Another  point  which  has  considerable  weight  in  determin- 
ing promotions  and  increases  is  the  employee's  record  of 
attendance  at  our  night  classes,  which  are  conducted  during 
the  winter  months,  and  include  such  studies  as  accounting, 
salesmanship,  public  .speaking,  shop  mathematics,  stenog- 
raphy, typewriting,  etc.  If  an  employee  shows  an  interest 


STANDARDS   FOR   RATING   SCHEMES  279 

in  improving  himself  along  educational  lines,  he  will  be  given 
preference  when  considered  for  promotion  or  increase. 

Every  employee  is  required  to  pass  a  medical  examination 
before  starting  work.  This  examination  is  made  by  the 
company  physician.  The  company  conducts  noon-hour  meet- 
ings, issues  bulletins,  etc.,  in  an  effort  to  educate  all  em- 
ployees along  the  lines  of  health. 

In  our  factory,  we  have  a  minimum  and  maximum  wage- 
scale  for  all  positions.  Generally  the  employee  is  hired  at 
the  minimum  rate  and  the  foreman  in  the  department  has 
the  authority  for  suggesting  increases  as  the  man  increases 
his  efficiency  on  the  job.  The  foreman,  however,  cannot 
raise  a  man  above  a  certain  maximum  unless  by  special 
authorization. 

All  increase  slips,  both  factory  and  office,  are  passed  upon 
by  the  employment  manager,  after  being  proposed  by  the 
foreman  or  department  head  and  being  O.K.'d  by  the  super- 
visor or  superintendent. 

This  company  issues  to  department  heads  a  very  complete 
statement  of  its  standards  for  rating,  together  with  an  explana- 
tion of  all  of  the  terms  used.  The  report  received  quarterly 
from  department  heads  contains  a  rating  for  each  employee 
on  "health,"  "mentality,"  "industry,"  "knowledge,"  and  "ef- 
fectiveness." Each  of  these  terms  is  given  a  maximum  weight 
of  20  points,  the  total  maximum  rating  thus  being  100.  The 
following  schedule  is  used  in  governing  the  efficiency  marking: 

Above  85   Exceptional ;  excellent. 

Between  85  and  80 Good,  or  thoroughly  satisfac- 
tory. 

Between  80  and  75 Good,  but  not  thoroughly  satis- 
factory. 

Between  75  and  70 Fair. 

Below  70   Poor ;  on  probation. 

When  a  marking  above  90  or  below  70  is  reported,  the 
department  head  must  give  facts  in  justification  of  same.  No 


280  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

marking  above  90  or  below  70  is  entered  on  the  employment 
record  until  this  explanation  is  received. 

Plan  of  Burroughs  Adding  Machine  Company 

The  Burroughs  Adding  Machine  Company,  of  Detroit, 
Michigan,  maintains  record  cards,  especially  in  connection  with 
their  general  office  force,  which  appear  to  conform  somewhat 
more  closely  to  the  standards  mentioned  above.  The  record 
includes  all  of  the  ordinary  information  usually  kept  con- 
cerning employees,  such  as  the  name,  address,  date  and  place 
of  birth,  transfers,  and  salary  changes.  In  addition,  a  space 
is  provided  for  a  record  of  the  successful  completion  of  any 
educational  effort  on  the  part  of  the  employees.  The  employ- 
ment department  is  expected  to  keep  an  up-to-date  account 
of  the  employee's  ability  to  do  work  different  from  that  for 
which  he  was  originally  hired,  or  to  which  he  is  assigned 
at  the  moment.  The  reverse  side  of  the  record  card  is  left 
blank  for  notes  which  are  made  from  time  to  time  concerning 
anything  of  significance  which  may  occur.  By  the  use  of  a 
"recommendation  for  increase"  form,  a  periodical  opinion  in 
writing  is  secured  from  each  department  manager  concerning 
the  class  of  work  being  done  and  progress  attained  by  each 
person  under  his  supervision. 

Danger  of  Inaccuracy — Harvard  Example 

There  are  several  general  principles  which  should  govern 
any  form  of  efficiency  rating.  The  most  obvious  failures  arise 
out  of  the  inability  of  those  who  make  the  ratings  to  formulate 
for  themselves  standards  of  achievement  or  ability.  Striking 
examples  of  the  wide  divergence  in  markings  which  are  sure 
to  occur,  even  on  material  which  has  been  subjected  to  scrutiny 
over  a  long  period  of  time  and  among  persons  who  are  well 
trained  in  doing  just  this  kind  of  work,  may  be  drawn  from 
the  experience  of  educators.  An  examination  of  the  teaching 


STANDARDS   FOR    RATING    SCHEMES 


28l 


in  the  Division  of  Economics  at  Harvard  University  was 
completed  by  the  Division  of  Education  of  that  university  in 
September,  1916.  It  includes  a  study  of  marks  given  by 
seven  instructors  who  graded  ten  mid-year  examination  books. 
In  each  book  there  were  ten  answers,  and  each  instructor  gave 
a  separate  mark  for  each  answer  as  well  as  a  mark  for  the 
book  as  a  whole.  All  of  the  questions  proposed  in  the  ex- 
amination were  asked  in  such  a  way  that  there  could  be  no 
fundamental  disagreement  as  to  the  statement  of  fact  involved 
in  any  given  answer.  Figure  64  shows  how  widely  the  in- 
structors varied  in  their  estimates  of  the  ten  books. 


No.  of  Book 

Highest  Mark 

Lowest  Mark 

i                

(X 

7<r 

2           

81 

60 

81 

66 

88 

60 

cr 

s< 

6<; 

6 

84 

62 

7 

71 

(?7 

8   

60 

CQ 

o.  . 

63 

46 

IO 

4-7 

28 

Figure  64.     Table  Showing  Variation  in  Ratings 

Range  of  marks  given  by  seven  Harvard    instructors  on  ten   examination  books   in  eco- 
nomics.    "The  Teaching  of  Economics  in  Harvard  University,"  Harvard  Studies  in  Edu- 
cation, Vol.  III.  Harvard  University  Press,  page  196  ff. 

Even  greater  variations  appear  in  marking  the  separate 
questions.  Only  one  answer  out  of  the  hundred  which  ap- 
peared in  the  ten  books  was  given  the  same  mark  by  all  seven 
instructors;  and  there  were  only  seven  cases  where  five  or 
more  professors  agreed  upon  the  rank  to  be  given  a  question. 
Variations  in  marking  were  found  to  be  so  great  that  under 
certain  circumstances  a  professor's  tendency  to  mark  high  or 
low  could  determine  a  man's  success,  not  only  in  attaining  a 
degree  with  distinction  but  even  in  securing  his  A.  B.  degree. 


282  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

Similar  discrepancies  are  to  be  found  in  the  marks  of 
school  teachers  everywhere.  Extreme  differences  appear  in 
the  judgments  of  any  group  of  instructors  who  are  asked  to 
mark  the  papers  of  students  in  any  subject.  It  may  therefore 
be  expected  that  much  greater  differences  will  appear  in  judg- 
ing persons  in  such  abstract  or  complex  matters  as  "per- 
sonality," "initiative,"  "co-operation,"  or  "general  value  to 
the  concern." 

Officer  Rating— United  States  Army 

Several  methods  suggest  themselves  by  which  this  tendency 
can  be  overcome.  The  United  States  Army  has  made  use 
of  a  method  of  rating  officers  which  offers  a  fairly  successful 
solution.  Each  rating  officer  makes  out  his  own  scale  in  the 
following  manner.  Five  general  headings  have  been  selected 
under  which  the  ratings  are  given.  Under  each  of  these  heads 
the  rating  officer  places  the  names  of  five  officers  of  his 
acquaintance,  arranging  their  names  in  order  as  shown  in 
Figure  65.  In  rating  subordinates  the  officer  then  compares 
any  given  case  with  the  men  whom  he  has  selected  as  his 
standards.  To  obtain  the  total  rating  for  a  subordinate,  his 
ratings  in  the  five  separate  qualities  are  added  up.  Anyone 
who  equals  the  "highest"  officer  in  the  rating-scale  in  all  of 
the  five  characteristics  thus  receives  a  total  of  100  points,  and 
one  who  equals  the  "lowest"  receives  only  20  points. 

Because  this  scale  calls  attention  separately  and  consecu- 
tively to  each  of  several  essential  qualifications  for  an  officer, 
it  lessens  the  danger  that  judgments  may  be  based  on  minor 
defects  with  a  corresponding  disregard  of  important  char- 
acteristics. Officers  are  especially  asked  to  avoid  the  error 
of  rating  low  in  all  characteristics  a  subordinate  whom  they 
hold  in  disapproval  for  any  reason,  or  high  in  all  char- 
acteristics a  subordinate  whom  they  admire  for  any  special 
cause. 


STANDARDS   FOR   RATING   SCHEMES 


283 


L  PHYSICAL  QUALITIES. 

Physique,  bearing,  neatness,  voice, 

energy,  endurance. 

Consider  how  he  impresses  his 
command  in  these  respects. 


Highest:  Capt.  John  Doe. 
High:  Capt.  H.  Black.... 
Middle:  Capt.  R.  White.. 

Low:  Capt.  W.  Smith 

Lowest:  Capt.  E.  Jones.. 


.15 

12 

9 

6 
.    3 


H.  INTELLIGENCE. 

Accuracy,  ease  in  learning;  ability 
to  grasp  quickly  the  point  of  view 
of  commanding  officer,  to  issue 
clear  and  intelligent  orders,  to 
estimate  a  new  situation,  and  to 
arrive  at  a  sensible  decision  in  a 
crisis. 


Highest:  Capt.  R.  White.. 

High:  Capt.  B.  Gray 

Middle:  Capt.  W.  Smith.. 

Low:  Capt.  J.  Brown 

Lowest:  Capt.  E.  Jones... 


HI.  LEADERSHIP. 

Initiative,  force,  self  reliance, 
decisiveness,  tact,  ability  to  in- 
spire men  and  to  command  their 
obedience,  loyalty  and  co-opera- 
tion. 


Highest:  Capt.  B.  Gray. , 
High:  Capt.  John  Doe... 
Middle:  Capt.  R.  White. 

Low:  Capt.  W.  Green 

Lowest:  Capt.  R.  Blue.  . 


IV.  PERSONAL  QUALITIES. 

Industry,  dependability,  loyalty; 
readiness  to  shoulder  responsi- 
bility for  his  own  acts;  freedom 
from  conceit  and  selfishness;  read- 
.  iness  and  ability  to  co-operate. 


Highest:  Capt.  H.  Black 15 

High:  Capt.  W.  Smith 12 

Middle:  Capt.  R.  White 9 

Low:  Capt.  A.  Old 6 

Lowest:  Capt.  J.  Young 3 


V.  GENERAL   VALUE   TO    THE  SER- 
VICE. 

Professional  knowledge,  skill  and 
experience;  success  as  administra- 
tor and  instructor;  ability  to  get 
results. 


Highest:  Capt.  R.  Day 40 

High:  Capt.  H.  Night 32 

Middle:  Capt.  R.  Roe 24 

Low:  Capt.  A.  Old 16 

Lowest  Capt.  R.  Blue...  .    8 


Figure  65.     The  Rating  Scale  Card 
Used  by  the  United  States  Army  for  rating  officers. 

Anything  which  contributes  to  clear  definition  of  the  vir- 
tues to  be  measured  or  the  points  to  be  considered  will  be 
important  in  bringing  about  a  closer  agreement  in  the  rating 
given  by  several  different  observers.  This  point  has  already 
been  touched  upon  in  what  has  been  said  above  with  respect 


284 


TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


TRADE  ABILITY. 

Compare  nature  ..and  extent  of 
trade  experience;  skill  in  Rising 
tools  or  machines;  technical  infor- 
mation; knowledge  of  related 
trades  or  processes. 


Highest. 
High 
Middle . 
Low 

Lowest. . 


IS 

.  12 

.  9 

.    6 
.    3 


H.  PRODUCTION. 

Compare  ability  to  plan  and  get 
work  out  on  schedule  time;  pro- 
duction costs;  maintenance  of  de- 
partment; quality  and  quantity  of 
output. 


Highest . 
High... 
Middle . 
Low.... 
Lowest . 


III.  ADMINISTRATION. 

Compare  tact  and  fairness  in  deal- 
ing with  employees;  success  in 
making  occupational  adjustments; 
discipline;  esprit  de  corps  of  em- 
ployees; special  efforts  to  build  up 
a  stable  working  force;  sanitary 
condition  of  department;  accident 
record. 


Highest. 
High... 
Middle . 

Low 

Lowest . 


•  30 
.24 
.18 

.12 

.    6 


3V.  TRAINING. 

Compare  willingness  and  ability  to 
teach  beginners;  efforts  to  improve 
employees  through  instruction; 
co-operation  with  training  depart- 
ment. 


Highest 15 

High 12 

Middle 9 

Low • 6 

Lowest 3 


V.  SPECIAL   EXECUTIVE   QUALIFICA- 
TIONS. 

Compare  years  of  service;  loyalty; 
knowledge  of  company's  policies; 
co-operation  with  other  depart- 
ments and  with  higher  executives; 
promptness  and  accuracy  in  mak- 
ing out  reports;  initiative;  re- 
sourcefulness ;  self-control . 


Highest 15 

High 12 

Middle 9 

Low 6 

Lowest 3 


Figure  66.     Rating  Scale  for  Foremen 

to  suitable  points  upon  which  to  base  the  rating-scale.  It  is 
further  emphasized  by  the  scale  shown  in  Figure  66,  which  is 
based  in  part  upon  one  proposed  by  P.  J.  Reilly  of  the  Den- 


STANDARDS   FOR   RATING   SCHEMES  285 

nison  Manufacturing  Company  for  rating  foremen.  Definite 
points  with  respect  to  the  foreman's  task  are  enumerated,  the 
rating  being  accomplished  in  the  same  way  as  described  for 
the  army  officer's  rating-scale. 

Suggestions  for  Increasing  Accuracy 

The  few  experiments  made  by  psychologists  which  can 
throw  light  on  the  qualities  that  should  be  listed  in  an  execu- 
tive's rating-scale  seem  to  indicate  that  there  is  some  divergence 
in  the  ability  to  judge  a  trait  in  others  according  to  whether 
or  not  one  possesses  it  himself.  A  man's  judgment,  for  in- 
stance, of  neatness,  intelligence,  humor  or  refinement  in  others 
is  likely  to  be  reliable  if  one  possesses  these  traits.  On  the 
other  hand,  vulgarity,  snobbishness,  and  conceit  in  the  rating 
officer  render  his  judgments  of  these  characteristics  in  others 
quite  unsatisfactory.  In  the  same  way  it  appears  that  there 
is  a  fairly  close  agreement  as  to  judgments  of  efficiency, 
originality,  or  quickness,  while  there  is  likely  to  be  little  or 
no  agreement  among  observers  as  to  such  traits  of  character 
as  unselfishness,  integrity,  co-operativeness,  cheerfulness,  or 
kindliness.1 

i.  "Five-Division"  Scale.  The  experience  of  educators 
has  quite  clearly  demonstrated  the  futility  of  attempting  to 
mark  on  a  scale  of  more  than  ten  divisions.  Five  divisions 
are  probably  enough  for  all  practical  purposes  and  are  cer- 
tainly within  attainable  limits  of  accuracy.  Such  considera- 
tions as  the  wide  differences  in  the  grades  given  by  several 
teachers  in  marking  the  same  material,  and  the  variations  in 
the  grades  given  by  the  same  teacher  in  marking  similar 
material  on  different  days,  show  the  errors  involved  in  mark- 
ing in  terms  of  percentage,  using  50  or  100  points.  If  the 
marks  for  any  large,  unselected  group  of  students  are  placed 
in  five  divisions  according  to  rank,  they  tend  to  follow  the 


1  C'f.   Hollingworth,    "Vocational    Psychology,"   pages    139-160. 


286 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


curve  of  probability  or  chance  distribution  referred  to  on  page 
248.  This  would  give  2  per  cent  of  the  group  a  rating  of 
A,  23  per  cent  B,  50  per  cent  C?  23  per  cent  D,  and  2  per  cent 
E,  where  A  represents  exceptionally  high  scholarship  and  E 
a  failure.  Those  who  fall  in  the  A  or  B  class  will  be  slated 


IW 

95 
€0 
85 
60 
75 
70 

LEGEND 
;tical  normal  or  stand 
s. 
e  of  marks  £iven  by 
this  class, 
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tribution  of  mark 

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Distrib 
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Figure   67.     (a)  Graphic   Representation   of   Teacher's    Ratings  —  Teacher 

Marking  too  High 

for  advancement,  while  those  in  the  D  and  E  groups  must 
have  individual  help  or  drop  out.  The  effort  to  assign  only 
four  grades  instead  of  five  implies  that  the  large  middle  group 
must  be  divided,  and  this  is  not  desirable  for  any  purpose, 
either  in  the  school  or  in  the  shop,  since  those  who  comprise 
it  are  doing  fairly  satisfactory  work. 

2.  Use  of  Clmrts.     Supervisors  can  be  aided  in  attaining 


STANDARDS   FOR   RATING   SCHEMES 


287 


common  standards  for  rating  and  in  appreciating  what  is 
involved  in  a  just  distribution  of  grades  by  the  use  of  charts 
similar  to  those  shown  in  Figures  67a,  67b,  67c.  Figure 
67a  shows  the  distribution  of  marks  given  by  a  teacher  who 
was  marking  too  high;  Figure  67b,  one  who  was  inclined 


IW 

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LEGEND 

tical  normal  Of  stand 
s.    . 
e  of  marks  given  by 
"His  class 
utton  of  an  individual 
las& 

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tribution  of  mark 

of  teachers  for 
Distrib 
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teacl  lei  's      '•*•"•  '"  •  —  • 

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Figure  67.     (b)     Graphic   Representation  of   Teacher's   Ratings — Teacher 

Marking  too  Low 

to  mark  too  low;  while  Figure  67c  shows  a  nearly  normal 
assignment  of  grades. 

The  "normal' '  distribution  suggested  in  these  diagrams 
is  not  that  of  the  so-called  "probability  curve/'  but  a  modifica- 
tion based  on  the  study  of  many  school  marks  made  by 
Professor  Cattell,  formerly  of  Columbia  University.  It  comes 
somewhat  nearer  the  actual  facts  than  the  theoretical  curve. 


288 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


3.  Self -Questioning.  It  is  not  likely  that  many  groups  of 
employees  will  fall  readily  into  normally  distributed  groups, 
especially  where  only  a  few  persons  are  being  rated,  but  any 
considerable  deviation  from  the  theoretical  curve  should  cause 


IVU 

C5 

LEGEND 
itical  normal  or  stand 
s. 
e  of  marks  given  by 
Itiis  class, 
ution  of  an  individual 
lass. 

3rd  di5" 

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55 

tribution  of  marf 

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*^v 

V                           B-                            C                            D                            E 

Figure  67.     (c)  Graphic  Representation  of  Teacher's  Ratings — Normal 
Assignment  of  Grades 

the  one  who  gives  the  ratings  to  question  himself  seriously 
on  the  following  points: 

1.  Have  I  distributed  my  marks  judiciously,  or  have  I  un- 
consciously tended  to  give  too  many  marks  of  a  certain  grade? 

2.  Am  I  marking  too  strictly  or  too  leniently? 

3.  Have  I  for  some  reason  a  selected  group,  i.e.,  are  they 
especially  good  or  especially  poor? 

4.  Avoiding    "Averaged    Opinion."     A    statistical   error 


STANDARDS   FOR   RATING   SCHEMES 


289 


common  to  many  rating  schemes  is  involved  in  the  "averaged- 
opinion"  plan.  According  to  this  method,  each  of  several 
observers  records  his  judgment  of  an  individual  on  each  of 
several  characteristics,  denoting  the  rating  in  per  cent  or  by 
assigning  a  numerical  value.  The  final  rating  is  then  secured 
by  totaling  and  averaging  all  of  the  ratings  given  by  the  dif- 


Health 

^ 

Appearance 

\ 

Manner 

> 

Initiative 

Ur 

Amount"  of  Sales 

^2 

'  — 

Errors 

^> 

Cooperation 

X 

X 

Responsibility 

•£ 

X 

* 

Knowledge 

<g 

Absence  and 
Ta^di7ness 

4           i 

"      ' 

^ 

Figure  68.     An  Individual  Rating  Chart 

f erent  observers.  This  average  may  be  farther  from  the  truth 
than  the  statement  of  any  one  observer.  Multiplying  the 
number  of  characteristics  upon  which  the  rating  is  given 
merely  increases  the  probability  of  error. 

5.  One-Mam  Estimate.  It  is  much  safer  to  have  some 
superior  officer  study  the  ratings  of  the  observers,  noting  the 
marks  given  on  each  characteristic,  and  making  a  final  estimate 


290  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

in  the  light  of  his  knowledge  of  the  general  conditions  and 
the  personalities  of  the  observers.  Real  vocational  guidance, 
either  in  the  school  or  in  the  shop,  depends  upon  the  collection 
of  evidence  from  several  sources,  followed  by  a  sympathetic 
analysis  which  can  take  many  conflicting  factors  into  account. 
Figure  68  suggests  a  graphic  method  of  recording  the  rating 
which  lends  itself  well  to  a  study  of  this  kind.  Five  is  the 
highest  grade  given,  one  the  lowest. 

In  the  main,  it  is  much  better  to  ask  for  specific,  concrete 
statements  regarding  the  employee's  ability  and  progress  than 
to  ask  for  numerical  or  letter  grades.  Since  specific  es- 
timates cannot  always  be  secured  in  writing,  those  who  have 
transfers  and  promotions  in  charge  can  always  profit  by  fre- 
quent opportunities  for  conferences  regarding  individual  cases 
with  supervisors,  inspectors,  and  department  heads. 

Importance  of  Uniform  and  Objective  Standards 

Some  form  of  objective  efficiency  rating  is  a  vital  part 
of  the  program  for  training  and  for  supervised  occupational 
adjustments.  Progress  or  achievement  records  for  employees, 
like  the  majority  of  teachers'  marks,  are  based  largely  upon 
opinion  and  fail  to  reveal  to  the  person  rated  the  specific 
failings  or  good  qualities.  A  rating  given  on  general  char- 
acteristics or  expressed  in  general  terms  is  open  to  serious 
errors.  In  place  of  such  marks  we  ought  to  have  objective 
standards  for  measuring  a  child's  actual  accomplishment  in 
school,  or  an  employee's  daily  performance  and  his  value  to 
the  firm.  The  examples  cited  show  that  a  good  basis  for 
improved  rating  methods  already  exists.  Employment  man- 
agers and  directors  of  industrial  education  who  attempt  to 
install  record  systems  will  do  well  to  review  the  literature  on 
teachers'  marks.  An  educational  campaign  among  those  who 
give  ratings  should  bring  them  into  agreement  upon  terms  and 
standards  and  help  them  to  distribute  their  marks  justly. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  DEMOCRATIC 
PARTICIPATION  IN  MANAGEMENT 

The  Democratic  Shop 

Because  of  the  general  tendencies  of  the  time  in  state  and 
national  government,  it  is  only  natural  that  co-operative  man- 
agement plans  should  multiply  among  industrial  establish- 
ments. The  demand  for  a  modification  of  the  old  autocratic 
control  of  the  shop  was  by  no  means  created  by  the  war. 
It  was  to  be  expected,  however,  that  fresh  interest  in  this 
field  would  arise  as  the  result  of  our  participation  in  a  struggle 
which  more  clearly  defined  our  democratic  ideals.  Even  if 
there  were  nothing  else  to  favor  the  democratic  shop  than 
its  proved  efficacy  in  promoting  industrial  harmony,  we  could 
justly  anticipate  for  it  a  remarkably  rapid  development.  Rein- 
forced as  it  is  by  other  valuable  contributions  to  efficiency  in 
production,  and  with  a  vitally  significant  background  of  public 
opinion,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  questions  involved 
in  the  democratic  control  of  industry  deserve  to  be  classed 
among  our  most  important  national  issues. 

Management  Problems 

The  leading  causes  which  have  brought  about  the  necessity 
for  a  change  in  methods  arose  from  the  complication  of  man- 
agement problems  as  our  industries  increased  in  size.  Man- 
agement and  men  have  become  more  widely  separated  and  are 
less  and  less  able  to  understand  each  other.  Every  thoughtful 
worker  is  able  to  detect  evidences  of  inefficiency  on  the  part 
of  his  superiors,  and  because  he  knows  little  or  nothing  of  the 

'291 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

real  difficulties  involved  in  executive  control,  he  is  outspoken 
and  frequently  bitter  in  his  denunciation  of  the  policies  of  the 
firm.  Similarly,  employers  aref'too  far  removed  from  the 
workman  to  appreciate  the  harassing  conditions  under  which 
he  labors  or  to  get  at  the  root  of  the  multitude  of  small 
troubles  which  so  frequently  lead  to  grave  consequences. 

Utilizing  Labor's  Knowledge 

One  of  the  chief  weaknesses  of  many  large  concerns  is  the 
inability  or  unwillingness  of  the  leaders  to  tap  the  immense 
reservoir  of  knowledge  and  ability  possessed  by  the  rank  and 
file  of  the  organization.  The  proponents  of  scientific  manage- 
ment have  found  this  their  greatest  obstacle  to  progress.  To 
insure  the  success  of  their  plans,  information  must  be  gathered 
at  the  start  from  experienced,  thoughtful  employees,  and  even 
after  standards  of  practice  have  been  formulated,  their  suc- 
cessful introduction  and  efficient  modification  depend  upon  the 
sympathetic  understanding  of  the  operatives. 

Value  of  Incentives 

Another  weakness  of  the  large  industrial  enterprise  with 
its  minutely  subdivided  and  highly  specialized  occupations  lies 
in  the  difficulty  of  finding  incentives  sufficiently  strong  to  hold 
the  interest  and  secure  the  active  co-operation  of  employees. 
If  employees  derive  any  real  satisfaction  from  their  work, 
it  usually  comes  in  large  part  from  sources  outside  of  the 
immediate  task,  yet  bearing  vital  relationship  to  it.  Thus  the 
opportunity  for  self-expression  afforded  by  the  exercise  of 
some  power  of  control  over  the  materials  and  processes  used 
and  over  the  physical  conditions  of  the  work-place  may  add 
greatly  to  the  worker's  satisfaction  in  his  accomplishment  and 
at  the  same  time  open  the  way  for  the  utilization  of  an  ex- 
tremely powerful  incentive.  Furthermore,  a  voice  in  manage- 
ment adds  much  to  the  creative  imagination  which  the  work- 


PARTICIPATION    IN    MANAGEMENT  293 

man  can  bring  to  his  bench ;  it  changes  him  from  an  unthink- 
ing, often  unwilling  cog  in  the  machine  into  a  planning, 
directive  force. 

Three  Types  of  Plan 

Several  measures,  all  looking  toward  the  objectives  out- 
lined above,  have  already  been  considered  in  connection  with 
the  functions  of  the  employment  manager  and  the  control  of 
formal  educational  activities.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter 
to  present  several  democratic  types  of  management  in  such 
a  way  as  to  appraise  their  value  as  sources  of  satisfactory 
incentives,  as  well  as  to  reveal  their  possible  contributions 
to  the  informal  education  of  the  working  force. 

The  plans  now  in  use  in  the  United  States  may  be  roughly 
divided  into  three  classes: 

1.  The  collective  bargaining  agreement  with  trade  union 

committees. 

2.  The  plant  association  of  employees. 

3.  Shop  committees. 

The  Collective  Bargaining  Plan  in  the  United  States 

The  collective  bargaining  plan  is  exemplified  by  the  New 
York  cloak  and  suit  industries.  Some  six  years  ago  democratic 
principles  were  introduced  in  these  shops  by  bringing  together 
two  groups:  the  manufacturers  who  had  been  gathered  into  a 
single  manufacturing  association,  and  the  employees  in  their 
combined  trade  organizations.  A  board  of  control,  composed 
of  representatives  of  these  two  groups  and  representatives 
of  the  public,  was  elected,  which  for  nearly  six  years  success- 
fully maintained  industrial  peace  while  passing  upon  a  great 
variety  of  important  suggestions  and  grievances  brought  be- 
fore it  by  3,000  employers  and  75,000  employees.  Under  the 
protocol  drafted  by  Mr.  Brandeis,  now  Justice  Brandeis  of 


294  TRAINING  INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  all  trivial  or  purely  personal 
troubles  were  adjusted  by  local  shop  committees,  only  matters 
of  common  interest  or  grave  importance  being  appealed  to  the 
general  trade  board  of  arbitration. 

Somewhat  similar  arrangements  have  been  entered  into  by 
Hart,  Shaffner,  and  Marx  and  other  clothing  firms  of  Chicago, 
and  by  the  Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron  Company.  In  both  cases 
the  employers  deal  directly  with  union  representatives  in  de- 
ciding upon  labor  policies,  in  handling  grievances,  and  in  im- 
proving working  conditions. 

Collective  Bargaining  in  England 

In  England,  this  plan  has  been  widely  adopted  in  the  form 
of  "shop  stewards' "  or  "trade  union"  committees.  These 
committees  are  composed  of  workers  only,  elected  by  the  trade 
union  members  in  the  works  to  represent  their  interests  before 
the  management. 

C.  G.  Renold  of  Hans  Renold  Limited,  Manchester,  writes 
as  follows  in  the  Survey,  October  5,  1918,  regarding  the  func- 
tions which  these  committees  may  discharge : 

It  is  doubtful  whether  a  shop  stewards'  committee  can, 
or  should,  cover  the  full  range  of  workers'  activities,  except 
in  the  very  simplest  type  of  works.  The  mere  fact  that,  as 
a  purely  trade  union  organization,  it  will  deal  primarily  with 
wages  and  piecework  questions,  will  tend  to  introduce  an 
atmosphere  of  bargaining,  which  would  make  the  discussion 
of  more  general  questions  very  difficult.  Further,  such  a 
committee  would  be  likely  to  consider  very  little  else  than 
the  interests  of  the  trade  union,  or  of  themselves  as  trade 
unionists.  While  this  is  no  doubt  quite  legitimate  as  regards 
such  questions  as  wages,  the  more  general  questions  of 
workshop  amenities  should  be  considered  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  works  as  a  community  in  which  the  workers 
have  common  interests  with  the  management  in  finding  and 
maintaining  the  best  conditions  possible.  Moreover,  in  many 
shops  where  workers  of  widely  differing  grades  and  trades 


PARTICIPATION   IN   MANAGEMENT  295 

are  employed,  a  shop  stewards'  committee  is  not  likely  to 
represent  truly  the  whole  of  the  workers,  but  only  the  better 
organized  sections. 

Plant  Associations  of  Employees 

The  second  type  of  management  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
labor  democracy  established  by  the  Standard  Oil  Company 
of  New  Jersey.  Early  in  1918  the  company  announced  an 
election  by  secret  ballot  for  representatives  from  seven  divi- 
sions of  the  Eagle  Works  who  were  to  hold  a  joint  meeting 
with  representatives  of  the  company,  with  the  intention  of 
establishing  a  working  plan  governing  labor  relationships.  For 
the  purpose  of  the  election,  the  several  departments  of  the 
plant  were  grouped  in  seven  divisions,  each  electing  two  dele- 
gates. The  fourteen  representatives  of  the  employees  who 
were  thus  chosen  assisted  in  formulating  plans  which  have 
been  gradually  modified  until  they  include  the  following 
features. 

Joint  conferences  of  employees'  representatives  and  com- 
pany representatives  are  held  at  each  of  the  works  at  least 
quarterly  to  discuss  matters  of  mutual  interest.  A  general 
conference  of  all  the  employees'  representatives  from  the 
various  works  and  company  representatives  is  held  annually 
at  the  call  of  the  president.  Company  representatives  at  these 
joint  conferences  never  exceed  the  number  of  the  employees' 
representatives.  These  meetings  consider  wage  adjustments, 
promotions,  discipline,  discharges,  suspensions,  and  other  mat- 
ters affecting  the  employees. 

Through  these  meetings,  agreements  have  been  reached,  in 
drawing  up  a  list  of  offenses  for  which  an  employee  may  be 
suspended  or  dismissed  without  further  notice.  For  other 
offenses  not  on  this  list,  an  employee  cannot  be  discharged 
without  first  having  been  notified  that  the  repetition  of  the  act 
will  render  him  liable  to  dismissal.  The  foreman  sends  a  copy 


296  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

of  this  notification  to  the  employment  department  which  may, 
after  investigation  in  case  of  a  second  infraction  of  the  rules, 
either  approve  a  proposed  suspension  or  arrange  to  transfer 
the  employee;  or,  if  the  facts  warrant,  a  discharge  may  take 
place  with  the  approval  of  the  superintendent  of  the  works. 

Any  employee  who  believes  that  he  has  been  unjustly 
treated  or  subjected  to  any  unfair  conditions,  first  seeks  to 
have  the  matter  adjusted  by  conference  in  person,  or  through 
his  regular  elected  representative,  with  the  foreman  or  employ- 
ment department.  He  also  has  the  right  of  appeal  to  the 
general  superintendent  and  higher  officials  of  the  company. 
This  relieves  the  employee  of  the  necessity  of  going  to  the 
foreman  if  he  does  not  care  to  do  so,  since  his  elected  repre- 
sentative can  always  act  for  him. 

Other  provisions  of  the  joint  agreement  relate  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  employment  department  in  each  plant  under 
a  manager  directly  responsible  to  the  superintendent  of  the 
works,  a  plan  for  annuities,  sick  benefits,  and  life  insurance, 
certain  sanitary  .improvements,  and  new  housing  projects. 

Employee  Representation — Philadelphia  Traction  Company 

The  co-operative  scheme  of  the  Philadelphia  Rapid  Transit 
Company  offers  another  illustration  of  a  similar  plan.  This 
arrangement  was  perfected  in  August,  1911,  following  a 
period  of  bad  management  which  left  the  company  bankrupt 
and  without  the  confidence  of  either  its  employees  or  the 
public.  As  perfected  after  seven  years  of  trial,  during  which 
the  public  has  had  a  continuity  of  service  as  against  the  strike 
conditions  previously  prevailing,  a  large  amount  of  new  roll- 
ing stock  has  been  added  to  the  company  property,  wages  have 
been  materially  advanced,  greater  advantages  in  sick  and  death 
benefits  to  employees  have  been  assured,  and  the  number  of 
accidents  cut  in  half.  The  plan  now  has  the  following  features  : 

The  entire  group  of  employees  is  divided  into  classes,  or 


PARTICIPATION   IN   MANAGEMENT  297 

departments,  and  each  department  is  again  subdivided  into 
compact  groups  or  branches.  Differences  arising  between  em- 
ployee and  employer  may  be  settled  by  any  one  of  the  follow- 
ing representative  groups: 

1.  Branch  committees 

2.  Department  committees 

3.  General  committees 

4.  Board  of  arbitration 

Membership  in  these  bodies  is  in  no  way  limited  by  mem- 
bership in  any  union  or  any  other  organization.  "To  qualify 
as  a  voter  the  employee  must  have  been  six  months  in  the 
company's  service,  must  be  regularly  assigned  to  duty,  and 
not  occupying  an  official  position  of  any  character  with  the 
company.  ...  A  candidate  to  be  eligible  to  election  as  a  com- 
mittee member  must  be  regularly  assigned  to  duty  and  have 
been  continuously  in  the  employ  of  the  company  for  not  less 
than  two  years." 

Whenever  resort  to  arbitration  becomes  necessary,  one 
arbitrator  is  chosen  by  the  general  committee  of  employees 
and  another  by  the  committee  representing  the  management. 
The  two  thus  chosen  select  a  third.  If  they  fail  to  agree 
upon  a  third  person,  the  Provost  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, the  Chairman  of  the  Public  Service  Commission,  or 
the  Chairman  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  may  be  selected 
to  serve  as  additional  arbitrators  or  appoint  their  own  personal 
representatives. 

The  co-operative  plan  is  supported  by  dues  of  $i  per 
month.  Membership  is  voluntary  and  is  open  to  all  employees 
who  have  been  one  year  or  over  in  the  service  and  who  are 
more  than  16  years  of  age.  In  addition,  the  company  gives 
$10,000  per  month  toward  the  support  of  the  activities  of 
the  Co-operative  Welfare  Association  which  include  life  in- 
surance, sick  benefits,  and  pensions. 


298  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

The  "National  Government"  Plan 

An  interesting  modification  of  the  usual  employees'  associa- 
tion has  been  adopted  by  th^  Printz-Biederman  Company  of 
Cleveland.  In  its  inception,  democratic  management  in  this 
company  was  carried  on  through  the  house  of  representatives 
composed  of  employees,  the  senate  which  included  the  foremen 
and  department  heads,  and  the  cabinet,  or  executive  group 
made  up  of  company  officials.  In  the  course  of  time,  it  was 
found  that  there  was  no  need  of  a  double  check  on  the  action 
of  the  employees  such  as  the  senate  of  foremen  provided. 
Moreover,  the  senate  tended  to  reduce  the  opportunity  for 
direct  contact  with  the  management.  For  these  reasons,  the 
double  legislative  form  was  abolished  and  the  foremen  have 
come  to  be  regarded  as  a  training  body  which  co-operates  in 
various  ways  with  the  other  two  groups. 

The  Sidney  Blumenthal  Company  of  Shelton,  Connecticut, 
has  also  followed  the  suggestion  from  the  organization  of  our 
national  government  in  inaugurating  participation  in  manage- 
ment. There  is  a  house  of  representatives  elected  by  the 
employees  from  the  different  departments,  one  representative 
being  provided  for  at  least  thirty  employees.  The  foremen 
and  overseers  constitute  the  senate,  which  meets  separately. 
The  local  officials  of  the  company  comprise  the  executive 
group,  or  cabinet.  Proposals  are  drawn  up  in  the  shape  of 
bills  which  are  taken  up  for  discussion  independently  by  each 
of  the  two  houses.  In  case  of  a  failure  to  agree  on  the  neces- 
sity or  the  wisdom  of  any  bill,  it  may  be  placed  before  the 
cabinet  for  consideration.  No  matter  can  be  decided,  however, 
by  the  cabinet  alone.  It  must  appear  before  the  two  houses 
to  explain  its  stand  on  any  proposition  and  either  persuade 
the  members  of  the  houses  to  change  their  minds  or  be  per- 
suaded itself  as  to  the  propriety  of  indorsing  a  bill.1 


1This   form   of  shop  control  has   been  described   in   detail  by  John    Leitch   in   his 
volume   "Man  to  Man.' 


PARTICIPATION   IN  MANAGEMENT  299 

Shop  Committees 

The  third  plan  for  participation  in  management  has  wide 
variations,  but  in  the  main  it  may  be  described  as  a  simple 
committee  arrangement  established  by  the  management  for 
specified  purposes.  Safety,  sanitation,  the  employees'  benefit 
association,  the  management  of  a  cafeteria,  the  suggestion 
system,  gardening,  or  recreation  may  call  for  the  election  or 
appointment  of  a  committee  to  co-operate  with  the  manage- 
ment in  planning  new  policies  or  in  attending  to  the  details 
of  control.  Thus  a  metal  finishing  company  in  New  York, 
as  the  result  of  an  unexpected  strike  in  1916,  called  a  meeting 
of  the  representatives  of  the  employees  which  succeeded  in 
adjusting  a  dispute  after  a  three  days*  discussion.  It  was 
found  that  a  considerable  number  of  petty  grievances  con- 
stituted the  main  cause  for  dissatisfaction.  As  a  result,  a 
shop  grievance  committee  was  inaugurated  which  consisted  of 
representatives  elected  by  the  employees  of  each  department. 
These  representatives,  in  turn,  elected  a  second  committee  of 
five  to  meet  weekly  with  two  representatives  of  the  manage- 
ment for  discussing  and  adjusting  complaints  or  grievances. 

Fore  River  Shipbuilding  Plant 

The  Fore  River  Shipbuilding  Plant  of  the  Bethlehem  Steel 
Corporation  has  for  several  years  maintained  a  committee 
organization  which  is  under  the  management  of  a  special 
board.  Its  several  committees  have  charge  of  an  employees' 
benefit  association,  a  co-operative  store,  suggestions,  the  fire 
department,  safety,  and  a  considerable  number  of  affairs  which 
come  under  the  head  of  the  service  department,  such  as  the 
works'  paper,  first  aid,  grievances,  restaurant,  band,  and 
athletics.  During  the  early  part  of  1919,  the  Bethlehem  Steel 
Corporation  announced  two  new  plans  of  committee  repre- 
sentation, one  for  its  shipyards  and  the  other  for  the  steel- 
mills. 


300  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

Welfare  Activities 

The  shop  committee  affords  an  excellent  opportunity  for 
the  education  of  employees  in^a  principle  of  management  which 
is  now  coming  to  be  widely  adopted  with  reference  to  so-called 
"welfare"  activities.  The  cafeteria,  the  dental  clinic,  athletics, 
housing  projects,  and  medical  aid  are  among  the  numerous 
benefits  which  have  been  stigmatized  because  they  were  occa- 
sionally maintained  by  unscrupulous  employers  as  a  palliative 
for  low  wages,  long  hours,  and  bad  working  conditions.  When 
they  are  viewed  as  opportunities  for  exercising  the  collective 
buying  power  of  the  group,  and  administered  on  a  cost  basis, 
the  employee  contributing  his  fair  share  to  their  maintenance, 
the  stigma  is  immediately  removed.  Such  benefits  are  always 
more  fully  enjoyed  and  more  economically  managed  when  the 
needs  and  wishes  of  the  employees  are  closely  consulted  and 
when  the  employees  have  some  direct  part  in  their  organization 
and  control. 

Importance  of  Mutual  Confidence 

All  of  the  plans  outlined  above  are  but  mere  mechanisms, 
wholly  worthless  for  the  accomplishment  of  their  intended 
purposes,  unless  both  the  management  and  the  employees  ap- 
proach the  innovation  with  mutual  confidence  and  with 
several  essential  governing  principles  clearly  in  mind.  Pro- 
fessor Hoxie  voiced  one  of  these  considerations  in  his  discus- 
sion of  the  attitude  of  organized  labor  toward  scientific  man- 
agement. Reviewing  disagreements  and  personal  griev- 
ances which  arose  out  of  the  application  of  scientific  manage- 
ment principles  in  shops  which  he  investigated,  Professor 
Hoxie  arrived  at  the  following  conclusions: 

Even  where  the  manager  was  open-minded  and  thoroughly 
democratic  in  sentiment,  it  sometimes  turned  out  that  he 
could  not  understand  the  viewpoint  of  the  workers  or  had 
no  idea  of  the  intricate  workings  of  the  system  as  it  affected 


PARTICIPATION   IN   MANAGEMENT  3O1 

them,  and  so  failed  to  remedy  existing  evils.  The  writer 
has  in  mind  one  of  the  best  shops  where  the  management  is 
thoroughly  fair  and  liberal  in  spirit,  in  which  conditions 
existed  which  would  not  be  tolerated  for  a  moment  by  a  body 
of  workers  with  a  real  voice  in  affairs,  or  by  the  management 
if  it  knew  of  them,  yet  the  front  office  here  is  always  open. 
The  fact  is  that  where  workers  are  individualized  as  in 
scientific  management  shops,  their  just  complaints  will  not 
ordinarily  be  voiced  even  to  a  management  in  which  they 
have  confidence,  much  less  to  an  autocratic  employer.  Any- 
one who  knows  anything  of  working  class  psychology  under- 
stands perfectly  well,  that  the  individual  worker  does  not 
dare  to  unburden  himself  to  his  superiors  even  under  the 
best  of  circumstances.  He  fears  to  get  himself  marked  down 
as  a  kicker  or  an  agitator. 

Sympathetic  Management 

Exactly  the  same  difficulty  arises  with  respect  to  the  em- 
ployees' association  or  the  shop  committee  unless  the  workmen 
are  brought  to  feel  that  they  have  a  real  chance  to  voice  griev- 
ances before  someone  who  will  act  fairly  and  immediately, 
and  who  will  take  an  interest  in  carrying  out  the  practical 
details  of  the  adjustments  which  are  agreed  upon.  No  matter 
how  good  the  plan  for  democratizing  the  shop  may  be,  it  is 
sure  to  fail  if  it  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  superintendent 
who  does  not  want  it,  or  who  does  not  believe  in  it.  The 
working  plans  must  be  carefully  drawn  and  the  task  of  or- 
ganizing and  directing  this  complicated  and  delicate  machinery 
is  time  consuming  and  demands  exceptional  qualities  of  leader- 
ship. It  is  not  likely  to  be  done  well  unless  there  is  an  employ- 
ment manager  or  some  other  official  exercising  equal  authority 
who  can  devote  himself  to  it. 

Definite  Plan  of  Procedure 

Furthermore,  since  this  machinery  is  especially  designed 
to  bring  to  light  the  causes  for  grievances  or  deadlocks  before 


302  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

they  become  acute,  it  is  desirable  that  meetings  be  held  fre- 
quently and  regularly.  By  forming  the  habit  of  conferring  on 
a  variety  of  problems  wher£  no  great  interests  are  at  stake 
and  no  serious  tension  exists,  it  becomes  easier  to  settle  major 
differences  when  they  do  arise.  Having  a  regular  time  of 
meeting  does  away  with  the  tendency  on  the  part  of  either 
side  to  make  out  a  good  case  at  all  costs  and  to  indulge  in 
faultfinding  and  abusive  language  rather  than  a  careful  con- 
sideration of  just  claims,  a  tendency  which  is  quite  sure  to 
appear  when  expectations  have  been  aroused  by  the  announce- 
ment of  a  special  conference.  Full  provision  must  be  made 
for  elections  and  meetings  which  must  be  held  largely  during 
working  hours,  and  which  will  consume  much  time,  either 
on  the  pay  of  the  company  or  the  association. 

It  is  desirable,  finally,  to  have  every  grade  of  worker  repre- 
sented, a  condition  which  it  is  of  course  difficult  to  meet  in 
many  plants  where  a  single  department  may  contain  five  or 
six  grades  of  workers,  women  as  well  as  men,  and  members 
of  several  different  unions. 

The  Trade  Union  and  the  Democratic  Shop 

In  July,  1917,  a  working  class  organization  was  instituted 
in  French  war  factories  by  virtue  of  a  circular  issued  by  M. 
Albert  Thomas,  then  Minister  of  Armaments.  All  establish- 
ments having  more  than  50  operatives  were  urged  to  provide 
for  the  election  of  delegates  who  would  serve  as  a  link  between 
the  work  people  and  their  employers,  so  that  the  latter  might 
be  kept  informed  of  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  welfare  of 
their  employees. 

Aside  from  a  proviso  as  to  length  of  service  with  the  firm, 
all  workers  over  18  years  of  age,  enjoying  civic  rights  and 
of  French  nationality,  were  declared  eligible  as  delegates.  Al- 
though no  limitation  was  set  upon  the  election  of  representa- 
tives, the  great  Paris  newspaper,  Le  Temps,  inferred  in  its 


PARTICIPATION   IN   MANAGEMENT  3°3 

discussion  of  the  movement  that  close  co-operation  was,  being 
maintained  with  the  Federation  of  Metals,  and  went  so  far 
as  to  assert  that  "a  vast  working  class  organization,  which 
it  is  frankly  intended  to  connect  with  the  Confederation 
General  du  Travail,  is  thus  being  introduced  into  France." 
There  is  here  apparent  a  fear  that  recognition  of  the  demands 
of  organized  labor  are  being  forced  upon  industry  as  a  war 
measure,  not  by  legislative  action,  but  by  the  simple  expedient 
of  issuing  a  circular  from  a  minister's  office. 

There  seems  to  be  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  movement 
for  participation  in  management  in  the  United  States  is  likely 
to  follow  any  such  course  as  that  feared  by  Le  Temps  in 
France  in  1917.  At  present  the  idea,  in  so  far  as  it  is  separated 
from  the  efforts  of  organized  labor,  is  regarded  with  slight 
favor  both  by  autocratic  managers  of  open  shops  and  by  the 
majority  of  labor  leaders. 

Advantages  of  Shop  Organization 

On  the  whole,  it  is  probably  fair  to  the  movement  to  say 
this:  Experience  seems  to  indicate  that  there  are  a  group 
of  local  problems  peculiar  to  the  individual  shop  in  which  the 
trade  union  has  no  immediate  interest,  but  which  can  be 
effectively  handled  by  the  shop  committee  or  the  employees' 
association.  One  of  the  weaknesses  of  the  majority  of  unions 
affiliated  with  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  is  that  they 
represent  only  a  part,  often  a  minority,  of  the  people  in  a 
given  factory.  Office  employees,  executives,  helpers,  appren- 
tices, and  persons  in  many  unskilled  trades  have  no  representa- 
tion and  no  means  of  getting  a  hearing  regarding  their  just 
complaints  about  local  matters.  Moreover,  the  union  suffers 
by  continually  losing  its  most  competent  leadership  as  its  best 
men  are  promoted  to  be  foremen  or  to  other  executive  posi- 
tions where  they  are  not  eligible  to  union  membership.  The 
independent  shop  organization  overcomes  some  of  these  dis- 


3°4  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

advantages,  but  it  should  not  be  regarded  as  necessarily  ex- 
cluding trade  union  membership.  One  of  the  chief  disad- 
vantages of  the  shop  committee  or  "American"  plan  is  that 
no  pressure  can  be  brought  upon  the  backward  employer  who 
gives  no  more  consideration  to  his  shop  committee  than  he  did 
to  his  employees  as  individuals.  There  ought  to  be  no  objec- 
tion to  the  extension  of  the  democratic  shop  plan  so  long 
as  it  is  safeguarded  by  absolute  freedom  in  the  choice  of 
representatives,  full  liberty  in  the  judicious  exercise  of  the 
representative  privilege,  separate  meetings  attended  only  by 
employees,  and  the  right  of  union  membership. 

Advantages  of  Co-operative  Activities 

I.  Inspiring  Employee.  As  an  educational  factor,  the 
employees'  association  or  the  shop  committee  has  several  sig- 
nificant values.  The  failure  of  suggestion  systems  in  certain 
plants  has  been  due  in  part  to  two  reasons;  first,  the  lack  of 
directed  thought  concerning  matters  about  which  suggestions 
were  needed ;  and,  second,  the  opportunity  for  leisure  to  work 
out  new  plans.  The  organization  of  a  shop  committee,  or  an 
employees'  association,  makes  it  necessary  for  the  company 
to  lay  out  specific  pieces  of  work  for  the  employees  to  attempt. 
Rightly  directed,  the  democratic  shop  implies  systematic  con- 
sideration of  important  topics,  continuous  training  of  em- 
ployees in  methods  of  management,  and,  what  is  perhaps 
more  significant  than  the  others,  time  set  aside  in  which  the 
workman  meets  with  others  to  consider  problems  of  common 
interest. 

Several  companies  have  recognized  the  great  educational 
value  of  committee  representation  by  providing  that  the  repre- 
sentatives from  any  shop  or  department  shall  be  changed  at 
frequent  intervals  and  that  no  one  person  may  hold  the  office 
of  representative  for  a  greater  time  than  one  year.  The 
work  of  a  safety  committee  is  an  excellent  case  in  point. 


PARTICIPATION   IN   MANAGEMENT  3°5 

It  is  not  infrequent  to  find  a  close  relation  between  the  number 
of  accidents  in  a  plant  and  the  length  of  service,  a  large 
proportion  of  injuries  occurring  among  new  employees.  Un- 
less there  is  some  efficient  plan  of  formal  instruction  for  new, 
employees,  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  improve  this  situation 
save  by  gradually  creating  a  body  of  workmen  who  through 
service  on  committees  come  to  recognize  the  importance  of 
safety  propaganda  and  voluntarily  help  in  warning  and  in- 
structing newcomers. 

2.  Removing  Discontent.     One  of  the  chief  benefits  to  be 
expected  from  the  operation  of  a  co-operative  plan  is  a  reduc- 
tion in  the  causes  for  discontent.  This  may  take  place  in  part 
because  of  necessary  adjustments  made  as  the  result  of  sug- 
gestions and  conferences,  but  not  a  little  of  it  may  be  at- 
tributed to  a  better  understanding  on  the  part  of  employees 
of  the  problems  faced  by  the  management.  Through  an  educa- 
tional program  based  on  this  principle  and  extending  over  a 
period  of  years  a  contribution  may  be  expected  to  the  improve- 
ment of  working  conditions  and  shop  procedure. 

3.  Raising  Esprit  de  Corps.     Even  with  democratic  or- 
ganization carried  to  the  extreme,  there  remains  the  demand 
on  the  part  of  employees,  possibly  unconscious  or  dimly  de- 
fined, for  leadership  in  which  they  can  feel  complete  confidence. 
There  is  a  natural  response  on  the  part  of  intelligent  workmen 
to  efficient  planning,  to  an  atmosphere  of  purposeful,  well- 
directed    activity,    in    which    there    is    opportunity    for    the 
productive  exercise  of  individual  skill  or  talent.     From  this 
point  of  view  the  democratic  shop  raises  problems  not  unlike 
those  presented  by  self-government  in  the  school  or  college. 
Under  a  management  which  already  has  the  confidence  and 
support  of  the  student  body  or  the  shop  personnel,  almost 
any  plan  can  be  worked,  but  no  scheme  can  be  expected  to 
cure  bad  discipline  caused  by  lax  control  exercised  by  ineffi- 
cient leaders.     Under  good  leadership,  opening  the  door  to  a 


306  TRAINING    INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

share  in  management  is  likely  to  increase  confidence  and 
improve  esprit  de  corps  through  a  better  understanding  of 
the  difficulties  of  control,  by  promoting  group  consciousness 
and  loyalty,  and  by  broadening  the  workman's  concept  of  his 
part  in  the  undertaking  as  a  whole. 

4.  Stimulating  Industrial  Training.  The  wide-spread 
adoption  of  democratic  management  plans  cannot  fail  to  in- 
tensify the  need  for  industrial  training  and  general  education. 
So  long  as  workers  are  dealt  with  like  soldiers  in  an  army, 
who  must  give  unquestioned  obedience  to  orders,  the  intel- 
ligence of  wage-earners  and  their  knowledge  of  fundamental 
company  policies  are  of  secondary  importance.  Under  the 
new  regime,  where  employees  have  a  share  in  responsibility 
and  a  voice  in  administrative  councils,  education  becomes  the 
keystone  of  the  arch.  Ignorance  and  immaturity  of  thought 
are  dangerous  at  any  time;  their  disastrous  effect  will  appear 
more  clearly  when  management  and  men  are  brought  into 
closer  contact. 

Future  Participation  in  Management 

Many  indications  point  to  a  gradual  extension  of  a  share 
in  management  to  employees.  Some  firms  are  granting 
democratic  shop  control  merely  because  they  fear  the  radical 
labor  movements.  Others  have  appreciated  the  latent  educa- 
tional and  social  possibilities  in  employee  representation  and 
are  shaping  their  plans  to  make  use  of  the  hitherto  submerged 
interests  and  abilities  of  the  working  force.  If  shop  commit- 
tees or  other  forms  of  management  sharing  are  to  succeed, 
education  has  a  grave  responsibility  to  face  in  making  workers 
ready  for  the  change. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

A  FACTORY  SURVEY  TO  ESTABLISH  TRAINING 

Preliminary  Investigation 

When  a  training  department  is  to  be  established  in  a  fac- 
tory, several  lines  of  investigation  need  to  be  pursued  before 
any  classes  are  definitely  organized.  In  the  majority  of  con- 
cerns, training  is  fully  established  only  by  degrees;  the  work 
must  prove  its  value  and  is  extended  only  as  the  need  for  it 
can  be  demonstrated.  It  is  therefore  important  to  make  sure 
that  the  groups  first  selected  for  training  not  only  need  in- 
struction but  are  likely  to  undertake  it  willingly.  The  basis 
for  instruction  must  be  found  in  the  methods  in  use  in  the 
plant,  and  something  more  is  needed  for  this  purpose  than 
the  experience  of  the  skilled  employee  who  is  to  do  the  teach- 
ing. Standards,  both  of  method  and  content,  must  be  drawn 
up  for  each  instruction  unit.  All  of  the  agencies,  both  within 
and  without  the  factory,  which  can  be  utilized  to  advantage 
in  organizing  or  maintaining  the  work  ought  to  be  discovered. 

Organizing  Plant  Knowledge 

Every  industrial  plant,  large  or  small,  presents  a  serious 
problem  when  one  attempts  to  organize  and  utilize  the  mass 
of  available  pertinent  knowledge  regarding  it.  Executives  and 
workmen  alike  possess  invaluable  information  which  must  by 
some  means  be  reduced  to  systematic  form  before  it  can  be 
effectively  transmitted  to  others.  Trade  and  technical  litera- 
ture, even  advertising  material,  is  often  rich  in  content,  but 
useless  for  teaching  purposes  until  it  is  organized  or  rewritten. 
Where  scientific  management  has  made  any  headway,  standard 

307 


308  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

practice  books  and  instructions  to  executives  represent  an 
extremely  rich  source  of  data.  In  one  New  England  estab- 
lishment the  writer  found  the  ^following  series  of  printed 
booklets  and  typewritten  documents: 

1.  Syllabus  for  an  instruction  course  for  planning  de- 

partment apprentices. 

2.  Syllabus  of  instruction  for  foremen  and  department 

instructors. 

3.  Instructions  for  stenographers. 

4.  Plant  department  check  list  of  subjects  for  instruc- 

tion of  minor  executives. 

5.  Instruction  or  standard  practice  book  for  employment 

department  executives. 

6.  Instruction  or  standard  practice  book  for  foremen 

and  superintendents. 

7.  Manual  for  planning  department  executives  and  time 

study  experts. 

8.  Standard  practice  book  for  planning  clerks. 

9.  Book  of  forms  and  instructions  for  their  use.    (Em- 

ployment department.) 

10.  Instructions  to  watchmen. 

11.  Book  of  information  and  instruction  for  employees. 

Because  this  material  had  never  been  systematized  and 
cross-indexed  for  the  use  of  the  educational  department,  much 
of  its  value  had  never  been  realized.  There  was  naturally 
a  considerable  duplication  of  subject  matter  in  the  several 
documents,  and  at  times  confusion  as  to  policies  because  new 
standard  practice  sheets  for  one  book  were  not  always  inserted 
in  others  to  which  they  had  reference. 

Task  of  Educational  Director 

In  beginning  his  work,  the  first  task  of  an  educational 
director  is  to  determine  the  groups  for  which  training  is  to 


FACTORY   SURVEY   TO   ESTABLISH   TRAINING         3°9 

be  offered,  the  second  is  to  collect  and  put  in  teachable  form 
the  facts  and  principles  to  be  taught,  and  the  third  to  organize 
practical  problems  and  suitable  opportunities  for  developing 
mechanical  skill.  The  nature  of  the  group  to  be  taught 
determines  the  relative  emphasis  to  be  placed  upon  general 
or  technical  knowledge  and  upon  mechanical  skill  or  dex- 
terity. 

Operations  Classified 

Five  varieties  of  conditions  under  which  work  is  carried 
on  may  be  distinguished  in  the  majority  of  industries.  All 
of  them  ought  to  be  in  the  mind  of  the  investigator  who  makes 
a  survey  for  establishing  training.  The  classification  dis- 
regards, of  course,  operations  which  are  performed  infre- 
quently or  for  which  it  is  uneconomical  to  expend  money 
in  investigation  or  in  teaching  standard  practice;  it  includes 
only  important,  frequently  repeated  operations.1 

1.  Group  operations  performed  by  a  gang  or  a  group 
such  as  assembly  work  or  the  heavy  punching  done  on  steel 
plates  in  the  shipyards.     Many  of  the  operations  performed 
by  girls  in  candy  factories  are  of  this  character.     The  new 
employee  simply  works  with  the  group  and  quickly  absorbs 
information  regarding  the  entire  process.     Formal  training 
is  unnecessary  but  the  inspector  or  assistant  foreman  should 
take  an  interest  in  seeing  that  the  beginner  advances  as  rapidly 
as  possible. 

2.  Skilled  operations  requiring  a  high  degree  of  technical 
knowledge  and  skill,  such  as  tool-making,  where  there  is  little 
or  no  repetition  work,  or  pattern-making.     Training  on  such 
tasks  is  a  long  process  and  can  only  be  accomplished  effectively 
through  an  apprentice  school,  a  trade  school,  or  by  means  of 
continuation  or  part-time  classes. 


1  "Training  Employees  for  Better  Production,"  Training  Bulletin  No.  4,  Training 
and  Dilution  Service,  United  States  Department  of  Labor,  page  20. 


3*0  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

•  3.  Automatic  operations  which  are  almost  entirely  auto- 
matic, either  because  the  machine  is  automatic  in  operation  or 
because  the  machine  is  set  up  fully  prepared  for  each  piece 
of  work  by  a  job-setter  or  a  mechanical  expert.  Press-feeding, 
lasting,  or  edge-trimming  in  a  shoe  factory,  and  the  majority 
of  mechanical  factory  positions  are  of  this  type.  Training 
may  be  given  on  the  production  floor,  either  on  machines 
set  aside  for  the  purpose  or  in  a  bay  separated  from  the 
regular  flow  of  production.  Where  the  number  and  variety 
of  machines  and  operations  is  large,  it  may  not  be  possible  to 
train  for  each  position  in  a  vestibule  school,  but  the  saving 
in  time  and  the  improvement  in  the  morale  of  the  working 
force  may  make  it  advisable  to  have  at  least  a  part  of  the 
operations  taught  in  a  separate  room  or  building.  From  the 
beginning  this  work  is  almost  entirely  of  a  productive 
character. 

4.  One-way  operations  such  as  oxyacetylene  or  electrical 
cutting  and  welding,  chemical  processes,  or  riveting,  chipping, 
and  calking,  where  the  difficulty  depends  upon  the  handling 
of  refractory  materials  or  hand-tools,  or  a  knowledge  of  simple 
routine  processes  which  must  be  performed  in  an  exact  order 
and  under  carefully  standardized  conditions.    Such  operations 
always  need  a  special  room  or  bay  and  individual  instruction 
with  some  preliminary  practice  on  scrap  material,  allowing 
the  student  to  proceed  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  productive 
tasks. 

5.  Repetitive  bench  operations  involving  repetition  but  not 
done  as  gang  or  teamwork.    Many  operations  in  the  printing, 
paper-box  making,  and  rubber  industries  are  of  this  character. 
In  most  cases  it  is  highly  desirable  to  have  the  operative  trained 
in  a  separate  room  or  bay  but  it  may  be  accomplished  by 
inspectors  or  instructors  in  charge  of  small  groups  in  factory 
rooms.    Training  should  be  on  production  from  the  beginning 
of  the  training  period. 


FACTORY  SURVEY  TO  ESTABLISH   TRAINING        3" 

Survey  of  the  Factory 

With  these  standards  in  mind,  the  investigator  is  ready  to 
undertake  a  study  of  the  factory.  The  outline  which  follows 
suggests  the  several  steps  in  the  order  in  which  they  would 
naturally  be  undertaken  in  making  a  preliminary  survey  of 
a  manufacturing  plant  where  nothing  had  previously  been  done 
to  establish  formal  methods  of  training  employees. 

I.  Comprehensive  Study  of  all  the  Financial,  Executive,  and  Produc- 

tion Departments 

1.  Concise  statement  of  the  duties  of  each  executive,  showing 

the  limits  of  his  authority  and  his  relations  to  other  execu- 
tives. Obtained  from  standard  practice  book  if  one  has 
been  prepared. 

2.  Tabulate  the  occupations   in   each  department  and   indicate 

the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  each  occupation. 

3.  Compile   statistics   giving   the   length   of   service   of   present 

employees,  showing  the  distribution  for  the  company  as  a 
whole  and  then  by  departments  and  important  occupations. 

4.  Study  the  seasonal  fluctuations  of  the  number  employed  in 

each  department  for  a  period  of  at  least  three  or  four 
years.  Plot  the  changes  in  the  number  employed  as  sug- 
gested in  Figure  10,  page  24. 

5.  Study  the  labor  turnover  figures  by  departments  and  by  occupa- 

tions for  the  same  number  of  years. 

6.  Make   a   brief   preliminary    examination    of   the    amount   of 

experience  and  technical  education  required  for  the  occupa- 
tional groups  represented  in  each  department.  This  will 
be  supplied  in  sufficient  detail  by  job  specifications  or  the 
data  upon  which  the  standardization  of  occupations  and 
wages  has  been  based.  (See  pages  225  and  254.) 

7.  Analyze  the  principal  sources  of  labor  supply  for  each  occu- 

pational group. 

II.  Detailed  Analysis  of  Departments  Shown  to  Need  Training  as  a 

Result  of  the  Study  Outlined  under  (i)  Above 
I.  Detailed  study  of  the  nature  and  number  of  positions  repre- 
sented in  each  department,  showing  the  number  of  persons 
employed,    their   length   of   service,   previous   experience, 
education,  and  nationality. 


312  TRAINING  INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

2.  Detailed  study  of  each  task  to  bring  to  light  the  mental 

and  physical  requirements,  the  length  of  time  necessary 
to  learn  the  work,  and  the  tools,  machines,  processes,  and 
methods  utilized. 

3.  If  skill  or  technical  knowledge  or  both  are  required  in  a 

position,  determine  whether  there  are  satisfactory  oppor- 
tunities for  acquiring  these  elements  in<. connection  with 
routine  employment. 

4.  Determine  upon  a  relatively  small  number  of  occupations 

for  which  training  ought  to  be  undertaken  first.  The 
choice  will  depend  largely  upon  the  relative  importance 
of  the  positions  to  the  company  and  the  need  for  training 
evidenced  by  labor  turnover  and  the  available  sources  of 
trained  workmen. 

III.  Analysis   for  Training  Purposes  of  the  Occupations  Selected2 

1.  Study   location   and   number   of   machines,   benches,   tools, 

and  other  equipment,  and  connection  of  each  job  to  other 
closely  related  work. 

2.  List  all  operations  or  processes  in  order,  determining  the 

relative  difficulty  of  each.  '    , 

3.  Rearrange  work  processes  in  the  order  in  which  they  should 

be  taught. 

4.  Study  methods  of  inspection,  cost  studies  on  wastage  of 

sundries,  time  and  motion  studies,  and  any  other  avail- 
able data  which  will  furnish  supplementary  instructional 
material. 

5.  Determine  whether  training  should  be  given   in  the  shop 

or  in  a  separate  room. 

6.  Schedule  instruction  for  persons  already  employed  so  that 

it  may  come  at  hours  when  the  production  load  is  least. 

IV.  Study  Training  Opportunities  Outside  of  the  Plant  Which  May 

Supplement  the  Efforts  of  the  Training  Department 

Sources  of  Information 

At  this  point  the  investigator  should  be  able  to  make  use 
of  data  collected  by  public  education  authorities.     Several 


2  For    an    excellent    discussion    of    the    subject,    see    "The    Instructor,    The    Man, 
and  the  Job,"  by  Charles  R.  Allen  (Chapters  V  to  XIV). 


FACTORY  SURVEY  TO  ESTABLISH  TRAINING        3J3 

cities  have  made  excellent  beginnings  in  surveying  the  local 
industries  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  vocational  instruction 
which  should  be  offered  by  or  in  co-operation  with  the  public 
schools.  Indianapolis,  Indiana,  Richmond,  Virginia,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  and  Wilmington,  Delaware,  are  among  the  cities 
for  which  published  studies  of  this  kind  are  accessible.  None 
of  the  studies  so  far  undertaken,  however,  have  had  the  co- 
operation of  a  sufficient  number  of  industries  in  which  studies 
of  the  kind  outlined  above  could  be  carried  out.  The  trade 
analyses  of  these  surveys,  as  well  as  the  data  regarding  the 
exact  needs  of  individual  industries,  are  therefore  deficient. 

In  drawing  up  instruction  plans,  much  ingenuity  needs  to 
be  exercised  to  make  sure  that  all  of  the  existing  sources  of 
information  are  tapped.  A  check  list  ought  to  be  prepared 
at  the  start  showing  all  the  records  kept  by  the  company, 
the  previous  investigations  made  and  on  file,  and  the  depart- 
ments and  persons  having  especially  useful  information.  Such 
a  list  of  sources  for  information  concerning  the  instruction 
of  newly  employed  operatives  might  include: 

1.  Job  specifications:  special  difficulties  and  exactions  of 

each  position. 

2.  Trade  tests:   fund  of  general  information  regarding 

operations;  get  original  data,  if  possible. 

3.  Time  and  motion  studies:  review  cases  in  shops  with 

planning  agents ;  revise  to  bring  out  instruction  point 
in  each  step  of  operation  or  process. 

4.  Departmental     instructors:      discuss     difficulties     of 

learners  and  order  of  present  instruction. 

5.  Inspectors:  outline  mistakes  which  need  to  be  guarded 

against  by  instruction. 

6.  Foremen:  general  information  regarding  operations, 

and  instruction  points;  list  of  examples  of  failures 
due  to  lack  of  instruction. 

7.  Safety  engineer  and  compensation  department:  safety 


314  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

points  of  individual  machines  or  jobs;  review  past 
cases  to  draw  out  possible  prevention  through  educa- 
tion. 

8.  Medical  department:  Causes  of  accidents  and  infec- 

tions ;  illustrative  cases  for  teaching  use. 

9.  Cost  accounting:  Waste  due  to  carelessness  or  lack  of 

instruction;  give  particular  attention  to  waste  of 
sundries. 

Theory  of  Wages 

In  making  the  survey,  one  should  never  lose  sight  of  the 
essential  economic  facts  upon  which  the  labor  contract  is 
based.  Several  different  factors  enter  into  the  determination 
of  the  amount  of  wages  that  are  paid  to  an  employee.  The 
first  element  is  the  amount  of  time  which  he  devotes  to  the 
employer's  service.  Without  considering  productive  accom- 
plishment, the  first  important  element  in  determining  the  wage 
is  the  total  number  of  hours  of  employment.  In  the  second 
place,  payment  is  made  for  the  expenditure  of  physical  energy. 
Work  which  requires  little  skill  or  intelligence  is  usually  poorly 
paid,  but  wages  tend  to  increase  gradually  as  the  amount  of 
physical  energy  expended  increases.  A  third  element  is  manual 
skill  or  dexterity,  the  amount  of  the  wage  being  dependent 
upon  the  time  required  to  reach  a  certain  level  of  production 
and  the  relative  difficulty  of  mastering  the  details  of  the  task. 
Willingness  to  receive  orders  or  instructions,  and  the  ability 
to  interpret  and  execute  them  with  dispatch  and  accuracy 
constitute  a  fourth  factor.  To  a  limited  extent  among  opera- 
tives, but  to  a  much  larger  degree  among  executives,  salesmen, 
or  clerical  employees,  payment  is  given  for  an  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  manufacturing  details,  company  policies,  and  other 
practical  information  relative  to  the  immediate  task  which  is 
gained  almost  solely  by  experience  and  observation.  Finally, 
the  employee  may  be  paid  for  the  application  of  his  experience 


FACTORY   SURVEY  TO  ESTABLISH   TRAINING        3*5 

and  his  knowledge  of  mathematical,  scientific,  or  technical 
principles  to  the  solution  of  practical  problems. 

Training  and  Wages 

Fundamentally,  then,  training  ought  to  be  designed  to 
increase  the  worker's  earning  power,  or  what  amounts  to  the 
same  thing,  his  productive  value  to  the  concern.  Especially 
when  educational  work  is  first  being  introduced,  experience 
has  shown  that  it  is  wise  to  draw  a  clear  line  of  distinction 
between  the  training  functions  and  the  general  educational 
functions  outlined  in  Chapter  VIII,  page  130.  Otherwise 
it  is  not  easy  to  keep  the  accounts  of  the  training  department 
free  from  charges  for  activities  which  have  only  indirect  effects 
upon  production,  the  direct  value  of  the  work  is  obscured, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  "sell"  it  either  to  employees  or  to  the 
management. 

A  Training  Program 

The  accompanying  chart  (Figure  69)  suggests  a  method 
for  outlining  courses  of  study  after  the  groups  of  students 
to  be  taught  and  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  given  to  each 
group  have  been  decided  upon.  Instruction  for  both  office 
and  operating  departments  has  been  divided  into  four  divisions. 

1.  The  employee  will  need  to  have  a  certain  amount  of 
practical  experience  in  the  work  of  the  office  or  shop.     This 
may  be  secured  in  the  vestibule  school  or  by  doing  productive 
work  in  the  executive  or  manufacturing  departments. 

2.  His  working  experience  may  be  supplemented  by  inspec- 
tion trips,  in  the  course  of  which  he  learns  something  of  the 
geography  of  the  plant,  the  routine  flow  of  work,  and  the 
relations  which  exist  among  the  several  divisions  of  the  or- 
ganization.   He  may  profitably  spend  considerable  time  observ- 
ing workmen  or  executives  who  are  engaged  in  tasks  related 
to  his  own. 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


3.  Each  employee  will  need  to  have  at  least  a  small  fund 
of  information  regarding  the  company's  history,  its  organiza- 
tion, policies,  and  methods.     For  those  engaged  in  clerical  or 
executive  duties  this  division  will  need  to  be  enlarged  upon 
much  more  than  in  the  case  of  machine  operatives. 

4.  For  unskilled  or  semiskilled  workmen  it  is  likely  that 
no  related  academic  or  technical  instruction  will  be  planned. 
The  amount  of  stress  to  be  laid  upon  this  section  of  the 
program  will  depend  in  large  part  upon  the  desire  to  prepare 
the  student  for  future  advancement  or  to  enable  him  to  hold 
a  more  responsible  position  in  management  or  production. 


Groups 

Experience 

Inspection  Trips 
and 
Observation 

Knowledge  of 
Company's 
History,  Organi- 
zation, Policies, 
and  Methods 

Related    Aca 
demic  and 
Technical 
Instruction 

A 

i 

Y 

2 

Y 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

3 

4 

s 

6 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

B 

X 

x 

Y 

Y 

Y 

- 

X 

C... 

Y 

X 
X 

Tl 

X 

D 

E  

T 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Tf 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Y 

Tf 

X 

Y 

Figure  69.     Chart  of  the  Training  Program 

Chart  of  Training  Program 

Each  of  the  numbers  heading  the  vertical  columns  in  the 
chart  represents  a  small  instruction  unit.  After  the  illustra- 
tive material  for  any  unit  has  been  collected,  arranged  in 
proper  teaching  order,  and  the  instructor's  notes  and  check 
lists  have  been  typewritten,  the  whole  is  bound  in  a  loose-leaf 
folder. 

Suppose  that  A  in  the  chart  represents  a  group  of  semi- 
skilled machine  operatives;  B,  another  group  of  operatives 
on  a  higher  grade  of  work ;  C,  a  group  of  clerical  employees ; 
D,  a  group  of  minor  executives;  and  E,  college  or  technical 
school  graduates  who  are  preparing  themselves  for  executive 
positions.  The  units  of  instruction  to  be  taken  by  each  group 


FACTORY   SURVEY   TO   ESTABLISH   TRAINING         31/ 

are  represented  by  the  crosses  in  the  columns  across  the  chart. 
The  number  and  character  of  the  units  to  be  studied  and  the 
method  to  be  pursued  in  giving  the  instruction  will  depend 
upon  the  character  of  the  particular  group  of  employees  under 
consideration. 

Common  Subjects 

In  a  high  school  or  college  there  are  certain  subjects  which 
many  students  take  regardless  of  the  particular  course  being 
pursued.  Elementary  mathematics,  civics,  and  physical  train- 
ing are  familiar  illustrations.  Similarly,  there  will  be  certain 
units  of  instruction  which  will  be  planned  for  nearly  all 
employees.  The  first  two  groups  of  columns  on  the  chart 
will  contain  the  best  examples  of  such  units. 

Naturally,  specialization  in  the  plant  is  much  greater  than 
in  the  school,  but  it  will  help  in  organizing  the  instruction  plan 
to  recognize  similar  elements  in  different  specialized  training 
courses  and  adjust  the  teaching  schedule  accordingly. 

Placing  the  Employee 

When  a  new  employee  is  hired  or  a  former  employee  is 
enrolled  for  training,  the  first  step  is  to  analyze  his  previous 
experience  and  education  in  the  light  of  the  work  for  which 
he  is  to  be  trained.  The  next  step  is  to  select  from  the 
available  instruction  units  those  which  particularly  suit  his 
needs.  The  final  step  is  to  assign  him  to  the  groups  receiving 
instruction  in  these  subjects  in  such  a  way  that  he  will  be 
associated  with  persons  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  same 
grade  of  intelligence,  skill,  education,  and  experience. 

Provision  for  Foreigners  and  the  Unskilled 

The  treatment  in  this  and  previous  chapters  shows  the 
need  for  preliminary  research  upon  which  to  base  courses  for 
advanced  students.  It  remains  to  point  out  that  instruction 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 


SHEEPSKIN; 
TANNINa 


COLOR  CELLAR 


I    ENGLISH  LESSONS   IN   LEATHER   MAKING    I   AND  TACKING 
I ! 1  LOFT 


JLESSQE  21 


TACKING  SHEEPSKIN3 


PAN'  USED  IN  DRYINO  ROOM 


PUTTING  OUT  AND   TACKING 

1.  makes  Coloring    skins    makes    them    wet    and 

wrinkled. 

2.  must  make     We  must  make  the  skins  smooth. 

3.  call  We  call  this  putting  out. 

4.  is  What  is  putting   Out?     (See  Lesson  19.) 

5.  must  keep  We  must  keep  the  skins  smooth. 

6.  tack  The  tackers  tack  the  skins  on  boards. 

7.  dry  The  skins  dry  on  the  tacking  boards. 

8.  take  The  strippers  take   the  skins  from  the 

boards. 

9.  hurt  Sometimes  tackers  hurt  their  hands. 

10.  should  go        They  should  go  to  the  doctor. 

11.  may  get          They  may  get  blood-poisoning  froni.the 

skins. 

Some  tanneries  use  fans  in  drying;  skins. 
I  must  not  put  my  hands  into  the  fan. 


12.N  use 

13.  must  not  put 


Figure  70.     Sample  English  Lessons  for  Foreigners 

Prepared  by  Charles  H.  Paull  and  George  F.  Quinby.     Copyright  by  the  Associated 
Industries  of  Massachusetts. 


FACTORY   SURVEY   TO   ESTABLISH   TRAINING         3J9 

for  foreigners  and  unskilled  laborers  requires  quite  as  thorough 
preparation  of  materials  drawn  from  specific  industrial  ex- 
perience. The  work  done  by  the  Associated  Industries  of 
Massachusetts  with  the  co-operation  of  the  Harvard  Bureau  of 
Vocational  Guidance  in  preparing  lessons  in  English  for 
Americanization  classes  is  a  relevant  example. 

These  studies  provide  the  pupil  with  text  material  drawn 
from  the  terms  used  in  the  factory  in  which  he  is  employed. 
The  lessons  include  elementary  instruction  in  safety,  sanita- 
tion, and  company  policies,  all  based  upon  the  peculiar  needs 
of  the  industry  in  question.  A  sample  lesson  developed  for 
a  concern  manufacturing  leather  products  is  shown  in  Figure 
70.  The  teacher  is  also  furnished  with  a  manual  which 
describes  the  work  of  the  factory  in  greater  detail,  thus  en- 
abling her  to  supplement  the  text  Work  of  this  character 
enables  the  school  to  hold  men  and  women  who  could  not 
be  interested  in  subjects  less  closely  connected  with  the  daily 
routine,  and  paves  the  way  for  more  general  subjects. 

It  is  certainly  desirable  for  the  state  to  assist  in  making 
studies  of  this  nature,  as  well  as  to  train  teachers  and  super- 
visors. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

A  NEW  EMPHASIS  IN  EDUCATION 

Underlying  Principles 

It  will  be  evident  from  the  survey  offered  by  the  foregoing 
chapters  that  it  is  impossible  to  set  forth  specific  plans  of 
procedure  for  industrial  education  which  are  capable  of  ap- 
plication throughout  the  United  States.  On  the  other  hand, 
experience  has  proved  that  there  are  certain  underlying  prin- 
ciples which  ought  to  govern  good  practice. 

The  intention  in  the  preceding  discussion  has  been  to  em- 
phasize the  practical  work  which  can  be  and  should  be  accom- 
plished in  the  factory  or  by  co-operation  with  public  or  private 
schools.  Before  attempting  to  summarize  arid  evaluate  these 
activities,  it  is  important  to  consider  certain  fundamental 
points  of  view  with  reference  to  vocational  education. 

Educational  Aims 

A  few  of  our  educational  leaders  have  long  maintained 
that  one  of  the  chief  purposes  of  the  schools  and  colleges  is 
to  make  opportunity  for  the  unusual  man  or  woman,  the 
person  of  genius,  to  cultivate  talents  that  can  be  utilized  in 
socially  helpful  ways.  Certain  of  our  college  and  university 
presidents  have  emphasized  the  point  of  view  that  their  institu- 
tions exist  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  training  for  leadership, 
and  that  they  have  no  part  in  the  general  improvement  of  the 
mediocre  classes.  This  attitude,  coupled  with  the  stress  laid 
upon  research  in  purely  academic  fields,  and  upon  scholarly 
attainments  to  the  exclusion  of  practical  knowledge  and  voca- 
tional training,  except  in  a  few  professional  fields,  has  resulted 

320 


A   NEW   EMPHASIS   IN   EDUCATION  321 

in  sending  from  the  higher  institutions  into  the  secondary 
schools  a  group  of  instructors  and  administrators  dominated 
by  the  same  aims.  Such  an  educational  program  is  neither 
safe  in  a  democracy  nor  is  it  economically  sound. 

The  modern  menace  of  Bolshevism  has  given  point  to  the 
advice  offered  by  George  Washington  in  his  farewell  address: 

Promote,  then,  as  an  object  of  primary  importance,  in- 
stitutions for  the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge.  In  pro- 
portion as  the  structure  of  a  government  gives  force  to 
public  opinion,  it  is  essential  that  public  opinion  be  en- 
lightened. 

{ 

It  is  no  less  important  that  the  thousands  of  employees 
in  the  ranks  of  industry  should  be  taught  something  of  the 
simple  elements  of  economics,  the  historic  origin  of  present 
conditions,  the  principles  of  scientific  method,  and  the  funda- 
mentals of  good  government-  than  that  university  students 
should  do  research  work  in  libraries  and  laboratories.  Our 
industries  are  in  urgent  need  of  numerous  second-level 
officers — foremen,  assistant  foremen,  inspectors,  and  minor 
executives — who  are  constantly  on  the  firing  line,  ready  to 
lead  and  to  instruct,  fully  prepared  to  block  the  work  of 
malicious  and  ignorant  trouble-makers. 

Popular  Knowledge  anu  Progress 

Industrial  progress  is  no  longer  dependent  upon  the 
achievement  of  a  few  scholars  and  leaders.  The  complexity 
and  diversity  of  present-day  conditions  are  such  that  little 
advancement  is  possible  without  first  raising  large  numbers 
of  persons  to  the  place  where  they  are  ready  to  welcome 
improvements.  Many  of  the  owners  and  executives  and  the 
majority  of  the  foremen  and  operatives  in  our  industries  are 
persons  of  limited  technical  training.  Only  a  small  proportion 
have  had  high  school  or  college  preparation  and  millions  of 


322  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

both  workers  and  leaders  have  only  the  meager  equipment  of 
the  first  five  or  six  grades  of  the  elementary  school.  This 
fact  explains  in  large  part  wjjy  scientific  principles  in  mill 
construction,  improvements  in  housing  and  transportation,  and 
industrial  hygiene  and  sanitation  make  relatively  little  progress 
except  in  a  few  large,  well-advertised  concerns.  It  lies  at  the 
root  of  the  waste  of  materials,  inefficient  working  methods, 
and  petty  injustices  common  to  factories  and  workshops  every- 
where. Labor  leaders  are  given  to  obstructive  tactics  and 
executives  tolerate  abuses  and  negligence  mainly  because  the 
men  of  neither  group  have  been  educated  to  the  point  of  ap- 
preciating the  possibility  of  better  management. 

Our  Problem — Dr.  John  H.  Gray 

Dr.  John  H.  Gray,  in  an  address  before  the  California 
Teachers'  Association  at  Santa  Monica,  summarized  our 
national  problem  of  industrial  education  as  fbllows: 

The  lower  classes  must  increase  their  earning  capacity 
and  intelligence.  They  must  be  made  to  share  in  a  much 
larger  measure  than  at  present  in  the  inheritance  of  the 
race,  and  in  the  control  and  direction  of  industry.  They 
must  be  able  also  to  earn  and  obtain  a  larger  share  of  the 
material  goods  and  of  educational  opportunities.  They  must 
come  into  part  of  the  leisure  and  of  the  opportunities  for 
real  culture  which  consists  of  the  acquiring  and  enjoying 
the  products  of  the  progress  of  the  centuries.  I  shall  not 
weary  you  with  the  oft-published  proof  from  many  sources 
that  the  children  in  the  dispossessed  classes  .  .  .  cannot 
possibly  get  more  than  the  mere  rudiments  of  reading, 
writing,  and  numbers.  .  .  .  What  these  children  get  now 
does  not  materially  increase  their  earning  power  or  effi- 
ciency or  their  happiness.  But  it  does  enable  them  to  ac- 
cumulate dissatisfaction  and  to  communicate  more  readily 
their  misery,  their  anger  and  their  hatred  to  others.  In 
other  words,  it  enables  them  to  make  trouble. 


A  NEW   EMPHASIS   IN   EDUCATION  323 

Our  Problem — Lester  F.  Ward 

Lester  F.  Ward,  in  his  "Applied  Sociology,"  has  stated 
the  same  argument  in  these  terms: 

There  can  be  no  equality  and  no  justice,  not  to  speak 
of  equity,  so  long  as  society  is  composed  of  members, 
equally  endowed  by  nature,  a  few  of  whom  only  possess 
the  social  heritage  of  truth  and  ideas  resulting  from  the 
laborious  investigations  and  profound  meditations  of  all 
past  ages,  while  the  great  mass  are  shut  out  from  all  the 
light  that  human  achievement  has  shed  upon  the  world.  The 
equalization  of  opportunity  means  the  equalization  of  intel- 
ligence, and  not  until  this  is  attained  is  there  any  virtue  or 
any  hope  in  schemes  for  the  equalization  of  the  material 
resources  of  society.  , 

Three  Questions 

To  approach  the  matter  from  a  slightly  different  angle, 
let  us  ask  three  questions: 

1.  From  the  worker's  standpoint  what  are  the  essential 
conditions  to  contentment  and  satisfaction  in  employment? 

2.  Is  the  capacity  for  leadership  and  successful  attainment 
widely  distributed? 

3.  Cannot  unusual  capacity  be  expected  to  assert  itself 
without  supplying  special  assistance  or  incentives? 

Equality  Among  Men 

Ward  builds  his  whole  philosophy  of  education  upon  the 
proposition  that  from  the  point  of  view  of  applied  sociology 
all  men  are  really  equal. 

Nor  is  this  in  the  Jeffersonian  sense  precisely,  though 
it  is  in  a  sense  akin  to  that,  viz.,  that  whatever  may  be  the 
differences  in  their  faculties,  all  men  have  an  equal  right 
to  the  exercise  and  enjoyment  of  the  faculties  they  have. 
Applied  sociology  is  "egalitarian"  to  the  extent  of  aiming 
to  secure  this  right  for  all  men  equally. 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

Viewed  from  this  angle,  inequality  and  unhappiness  arise 
because  of  the  lack  of  education  and  because  of  faulty  occupa- 
tional adjustments. 

The  real  misery  of  the  world  is  due  to  the  partial  depriva- 
tion of  the  power  of  men  to  exercise  the  faculties  with 
which  nature  has  endowed  them.  On  the  other  hand,  what- 
ever degree  of  happiness  men  enjoy  is  due  to  the  power  to 
exercise  their  faculties  and  to  no  other  source.  The  problem 
therefore  manifestly  is  how  to  secure  to  the  members  of 
society  the  maximum  power  of  exercising  their  natural  facul- 
ties. It  is  a  purely  subjective  problem  and  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  relative  superiority  or  inferiority  of  men. 
It  is  wholly  independent  of  the  question  of  their  intelligence 
or  ability  or  social  value.  It  is  even  independent  of  their 
capacity  to  enjoy  or  to  suffer.  It  matters  not  how  much 
satisfaction  they  are  capable  of  deriving  from  the  exercise 
of  their  faculties;  it  aims  only  to  enable  them  to  enjoy  such 
faculties  as  they  may  happen  to  have. 

Conclusions  of  Investigators 

Exactly  the  same  conclusions  have  been  reached  by  a 
group  of  investigators  such  as  Carleton  Parker,  Ordway  Tead, 
and  George  E.  Johnson  who  have  studied  the  fundamental 
human  instincts  as  they  are  evidenced  in  the  lives  of  the 
working  classes.  Satisfaction  in  employment,  enjoyment  of 
one's  work,  comes  because  the  environment  and  the  occupation 
itself  give  rise  to  natural,  pleasure-giving  feelings  and  actions. 
Discontent,  worry,  fatigue,  arise  because  the  instinctive  mental 
and  physical  responses  of  the  worker  are  repressed  or  forced 
into  wrong  channels.  "It  is  now  all  too  plain,"  says  Tead, 
"that  the  undercurrents  of  industrial  unrest  and  discontent 
which  come  to  the  surface  with  increasing  frequency  have  had 
their  source  in  an  unconscious  but  tremendously  effective 
repression  of  human  aspiration  and  desire.  The  release  of 
energy  and  vigor,  which  is  needed  to  clear  the  air,  will  not 
come  until  we  see  human  nature  as  it  is." 


A   NEW   EMPHASIS   IN   EDUCATION  325 

Taussig's  Conclusion 

Approaching  the  same  question  from  the  economic  side, 
workmen,  like  society  at  large,  are  distributed  not  according 
to  individual  endowments  but  rather  according  to  the  chances 
of  environment  and  heredity.  Movements  from  grade  to 
grade  in  the  social  scale  are  not  free.  And  this  lack  of 
freedom  is  largely  due  to  inequalities  in  education.  The  fol- 
lowing paragraph  from  Taussig's  "Principles  of  Economics" 
indicates  the  dangers  inhering  in  such  a  situation. 

Freedom  in  the  choice  cf  occupations  is  one  of  the  most 
important  conditions  of  happiness,  and  the  traditional  posi- 
tion of  common  labor  is  due  to  the  absence  of  such  freedom. 
The  disparities  in  earnings  and  in  social  position  of  which 
this  is  the  most  glaring  are  not  consistent  with  the  ideals 
that  are  dominating  the  civilized  world.  They  are  most  of 
all  irconsistent  with  the  aspirations  of  democracy.  It  is  prob- 
able that,  even  with  the  removal  of  all  artificial  barriers  t< 
free  movement,  common  labor  would  still  remain,  as  its 
present  name  implies,  the  most  common  and  least  paid.  But 
such  great  discrepancies  as  the  world  has  hitherto  accepted 
as  a  matter  of  course  are  not  inevitable.  They  bring  grave 
social  dangers,  in  the  intensification  of  class  prejudices  and 
class  struggles.  They  bring  a  false  attitude  in  the  rest  of 
the  community  toward  all  manual  labor — an  unworthy  con- 
tempt for  indispensable  work.  An  elevation  of  this  group  to 
a  plane  of  higher  pay  and  better  social  regard  would  indeed 
mean  that  other  groups  would  be  relatively  worse  off — they 
would  no  longer  secure  the  fruits  of  hard  labor  on  cheap 
terms;  but  it  would  mean  a  better  distribution  of  happiness. 

Distribution  of  Capacity 

The  second  of  the  three  questions  proposed  above  must 
be  answered  before  such  a  redistribution  can  be  brought  about. 
It  relates  to  the  number  and  position  in  life  of  persons  wJ  o 
are  capable  of  a  real  achievement — achievement  being  defined 
as  a  contribution  to  social  or  economic  progress  made  by  any 


326  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

intelligent  person  who  utilizes  his  knowledge  or  skill  in  science, 
art,  letters,  or  practical  affairs  for  the  good  of  the  social 
group.  Taussig,  although  adrrfitting  that  the  problem  is  un- 
solved, and  that  the  experimental  method  cannot  be  applied 
to  it,  expresses  the  conviction  that  every  evidence  shows  the 
commanding  influence  of  opportunity  and  environment  as  con- 
trasted with  the  effect  of  heredity: 

Anyone  of  intellectual  capacity  who  consorts  with  the 
average  persons  of  the  ''superior"  classes,  and  observes  their 
narrowness,  their  dulness,  their  fatuous  self-content,  their 
essential  vulgarity,  must  hesitate  before  believing  that  they 
and  their  descendants  achieve  success  solely  because  of  un- 
usual gifts.  Their  favored  position  must  be  due,  in  large 
measure  at  least,  to  training,  advantageous  start,  fostering 
environment.  If  few  from  among  the  lower  classes  rise, 
it  must  be  because  of  the  repression  of  many  who  are 
talented.  Only  those  of  very  ^unusual  vigor  and  ability  can 
escape  from  the  trammels.  A  great  fund  of  capacity,  no 
less  in  its  possibilities,  remains  undeveloped.  Though  varia- 
tions between  individuals  are  unmistakable,  variations  between 
classes  are  declared  to  be  unproved.  .  .  .  Those  of  the  very 
highest  gifts  are  doubtless  least  dependent  on  adventitious 
aid.  Generals  probably  are  born,  not  made.  But  colonels 
and  captains  can  be  trained.  In  the  ranks  there  may  be 
many  men  who  have  it  in  them  to  become  good  officers,  yet 
are  kept  in  the  ranks  because  no  way  is  available  for  bringing 
out  the  sterling  qualities  which  they  possess. 

Opportunity  and  Success 

Ward,  pursuing  the  investigation  of  the  presence  of  per- 
sons of  genius  in  all  classes  and  attempting  to  disprove  the 
theory  that  successful  men  are  in  large  part  self-made,  quotes 
at  length  from  the  work  of  Alfred  Odin,  "Genese  des  Grands 
Hommes,"  Paris,  1895.  M.  Odin  studied  the  physical, 
religious,  and  educational  environment  of  some  5,260  authors 
who  lived  in  the  French  portions  of  Switzerland,  Belgium, 


A   NEW   EMPHASIS   IN   EDUCATION 

and  Alsace  Lorraine  from  1300  to  1825.  He  shows  that 
with  almost  no  exceptions  these  men  had  stimulating  educa- 
tional and  environmental  opportunities  of  one  kind  or  another, 
and  that  practically  none  of  them  may  be  said  to  have  forced 
their  way  through  sheer  personal  ability  into  a  place  of 
prominence.  Ward  likewise  reviews  the  cases  by  which  Galton 
and  others  have  sought  to  prove  that  many  of  the  world's 
foremost  scientists,  mathematicians,  artists,  and  other  persons 
of  genius  made  their  way  in  spite  of  limited  resources,  poverty, 
and  unfortunate  heredity.  He  successfully  demonstrates  in 
every  case  that  those  presenting  this  argument  either  did  not 
know  "certain  vital  facts"  or  that  they  "purposely  suppressed 
them." 

A  typical  example  is  the  case  of  D'Alembert,  whom  Galton 
described  as  a  foundling  brought  up  in  the  home  of  a  poor 
glazier,  who  attained  in  spite  of  apparently  hopeless  circum- 
stances to  the  first  rank  of  celebrity  at  the  age  of  24.  Ward 
shows  that  D'Alembert  received  1,200  pounds  annually  from 
his  father,  that  he  received  an  excellent  education  for  his  time, 
and  that  he  suffered  but  little  from  the  stigma  of  illegitimacy, 
since  public  opinion  in  France  at  the  time  was  thoroughly 
tolerant  of  persons  of  uncertain  parentage. 

Self-Made  Men 

Of  the  few  men  of  talent  who  passed  their  youth  in 
poverty  or  economic  insecurity,  all  are  found  upon  closer 
examination  to  have  had  some  fair  substitute  for  means  and 
education,  such  as  the  assistance  of  ecclesiastical  authorities, 
the  acquaintance  and  support  of  other  men  of  prominence, 
or  special  encouragements  or  financial  subventions.  To  quote 
again  from  Ward: 

In  every  case,  had  such  aids  been  wanting  we  should 
never  have  heard  of  the  men  in  question.  ...  It  is  entirely 
safe  to  say  that  in  every  case  of  an  alleged  self-made  man, 


TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

could  his  entire  history  be  told,  or  the  particular  part  of  it 
that  explains  how  he  succeeded  in  escaping  the  repressing 
influence  of  adversity,  it  woul$*be  clear  that  something  be- 
sides his  own  genius  came  in  to  turn  the  scale  in  his  favor. 
As  Odin  says:  "We  always  see  some  fortuitous  circum- 
stance enabling  them  to  receive  an  education  far  superior 
to  that  which  they  could  have  obtained  in  view  of  the 
economic  condition  of  their  parents." 

Repressed  Capacity 

These  are  only  suggestions  of  the  array  of  facts  and 
opinions  which  Ward  assembles  on  the  negative  side  of  our 
third  question.  The  records  of  every  vocational  guidance 
bureau  in  the  land,  the  experience  of  every  teacher  or  school 
principal  who  has  striven  to  promote  the  success  of  his  pupils 
in  later  life,  all  give  a  like  answer.  Under  our  present  indus- 
trial system,  unusual  capacity,  when  evidenced  among  the 
laboring  classes,  is  almost  universally  repressed  and  unde- 
veloped. The  occasional  brilliant  exception  merely  illustrates 
the  law  of  blind  chance;  it  by  no  means  proves  that  genius 
is  bound  to  assert  itself  regardless  of  environment,  training, 
or  incentives. 

Developing  Opportunities 

Here,  then,  are  fundamentals  which  should  underlie  all 
forms  of  industrial  education.  Of  primary  interest  is  the 
wide-spread  dissemination  of  general  educational  opportunities 
through  continuation  schools,  part-time  schools,  and  the  ex- 
tension of  the  compulsory  age  limit.  We  must  make  it  impos- 
sible for  radical  and  ignorant  persons  to  continue  their  hold 
upon  the  working  classes.  Better  vocational  guidance  and 
improved  methods  of  personnel  management  which  will 
eliminate  the  unhappiness  of  those  in  misfit  occupations 
and  release  workers  from  the  fear  of  unemployment  and 
unjust  discharge,  better  adaptation  of  working  conditions  tot 


A   NEW   EMPHASIS   IN   EDUCATION  329 

the  physical  and  mental  constitution  of  the  employee,  are  all 
matters  of  public  as  well  as  private  concern.  We  ought  to 
assist  persons  of  ability  who  appear  among  families  in 
straitened  circumstances  to  acquire  the  elements  of  a  general 
education  and  to  take  their  first  steps  in  becoming  economically 
independent.  If  the  vestibule  school,  the  apprentice  school, 
or  the  trade  school  enables  the  poor  boy  or  girl  to  make  "the 
start  in  life,"  the  part-time  school,  the  free  state-supported 
high  school  and  college,  and  a  variety  of  educational  oppor- 
tunities maintained  at  public  expense  or  by  private  corpora- 
tions should  open  the  way  for  continued  advancement  toward 
a  more  noteworthy  achievement. 

Education  at  Public  Expense 

Education  at  public  expense  can  no  longer  be  maintained 
upon  the  theory  that  it  is  designed  to  help  only  the  exceptional 
man.  It  must  further  the  advancement  of  every  class  and 
it  must  utilize  all  its  resources  in  discovering  and  promoting 
men  and  women  who  make  the  less  spectacular  but  vitally 
necessary  minor  contributions  to  progress.  None  of  the  col- 
leges and  but  few  of  our  high  schools  have  done  this  hitherto 
— the  tendency  of  their  courses  has  been  to  create  an  aris- 
tocracy of  moderate  means  instead  of  democratic  opportunity 
for  the  development  of  useful  talents. 

A  Lesson  from  Agriculture 

Professor  John  H.  Gray  has  pointed  out  in  his  public 
addresses  that  we  may  well  take  a  lesson  of  hope  from  the 
history  of  our  state  universities  and  land  grant  colleges.  When 
they  found  that  their  agricultural  courses  were  educating 
people  away  from  agriculture  and  thereby  impoverishing  the 
nation's  sources  of  supply,  and  that  few  of  their  students 
ever  went  back  to  the  farms,  these  colleges  gave  up  their 
traditional  aims  and  established  an  education  for  the  farmers 


330  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

of  a  lower  grade  than  college  rank.  "From  that  day  to  this, 
those  schools  have  been  the  most  growing  and  popular  of  all 
our  educational  institutions  and^have  actually  been  educating 
farmers,  the  great  majority  of  the  students  going  back  to 

farm  life." 

I. 

Educational  Reorganization 

To  accomplish  a  like  far-reaching  benefit  for  industry 
requires  that  industrial  education  be  given  through  agencies 
which  are  continually  transforming  and  being  transformed 
by  going  concerns.  It  has  been  true  of  most  educational 
institutions  that  their  teaching  in  both  form  and  content  has 
lagged  behind  social  progress.  A  vitalized  training  program 
must  in  some  way  eliminate  this  fault.  John  Dewey  in  his 
"Democracy  and  Education"  has  stated  the  matter  with 
reference  to  general  education  in  these  terms: 

Educational  reorganization  cannot  be  accomplished  by 
merely  trying  to  give  a  technical  preparation  for  industries 
and  professions  as  they  now  operate,  much  less  by  merely 
reproducinj  existing  industrial  conditions  in  the  school.  The 
problem  is  not  that  of  making  the  schools  an  adjunct  to 
manufacture  and  commerce,  but  of  utilizing  the  factors  of 
industry  to  make  school  life  more  active,  more  full  of 
immediate  meaning,  more  connected  with  out-of -school  ex- 
perience. The  problem  is  not  easy  of  solution.  There  is 
a  standing  danger  that  education  will  perpetuate  the  older 
traditions  for  a  select  few,  and  effect  its  adjustment  to  the 
newer  economic  conditions  more  or  less  on  the  basis  of 
acquiescence  in  the  untransformed,  unrationalized,  and  un- 
socialized  phases  of  our  defective  industrial  regime.  Put  in 
concrete  terms,  there  is  danger  that  vocational  education  will 
be  interpreted  in  theory  and  practice  as  trade  education,  as 
a  means  of  securing  technical  efficiency  in  specialized  future 
pursuits. 

Education  would  then  become  an  instrument  of  per- 
petuating unchanged  the  existing  industrial  order  of  society, 


A  NEW   EMPHASIS   IN   EDUCATION  331 

instead  of  operating  as  a  means  of  its  transformation.  .  .  . 
Any  scheme  for  vocational  education  which  takes  its  point 
of  departure  from  the  industrial  regime  that  now  exists, 
is  likely  to  assume  and  to  perpetuate  its  divisions  and  weak- 
nesses, and  thus  to  become  an  instrument  in  accomplishing 
the  feudal  dogma  of  social  predestination.  Those  who  are 
in  a  position  to  make  their  wishes  good,  will  demand  a 
liberal,  a  cultural  occupation,  and  one  which  fits  for  directive 
power  the  youth  in  whom  they  are  directly  interested.  To 
split  the  system,  and  give  to  others,  less  fortunately  situated, 
an  education  conceived  mainly  as  specific  trade  preparation, 
is  to  treat  the  schools  as  an  agency  for  transferring  the  older 
division  of  labor  and  leisure,  culture  and  service,  mind  and 
body,  directed  and  directive  class,  into  a  society  nominally 
democratic. 

Consulting  Industrial  Leaders 

On  the  other  hand,  if  we  tolerate  a  form  of  education 
disassociated  from  the  influence  of  progressive  industrial 
leaders,  a  situation  is  bound  to  develop  which  is  no  less  danger- 
ous than  that  against  which  Professor  Dewey  has  warned 
us.  Educators  are  too  prone  to  see  the  defects  in  the  "existing 
industrial  order"  and  hold  aloof  from  it  rather  than  attempt 
to  improve  it  in  practical  ways.  The  only  hope  for  either 
the  factory  or  the  school  is  to  open  the  channels  of  communica- 
tion and  admit  the  possibility  and  the  need  for  mutual  trans- 
formation. 

Part-Time  Instruction 

In  the  specific  field  of  the  work  to  be  accomplished  for 
industry  by  the  colleges  and  technical  institutions,  one  of  the 
transforming  agencies  is  part-time  instruction.  Employment 
managers,  directors  of  industrial  education,  industrial  physi- 
cians, safety  and  sanitary  engineers,  housing  experts,  and  the 
executives  in  production,  sales,  and  planning  departments  must 
be  persons  of  some  maturity  with  a  background  of  practical 


332  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

experience.  Applied  training  in  preparation  for  such  positions 
cannot  be  given  in  connection  with  the  regular  college  program 
for  either  undergraduate  or  graduate  students.  General 
courses  which  deal  with  principles  and  current  problems  can 
be  offered,  but  they  must  be  supplemented  later  on  by  advanced 
part-time  training  or  short-unit  courses.  Evert  if  the  younger, 
inexperienced  student  had  the  apperceptive  basis  for  the  as- 
similation of  training,  progress  in  methods  of  administration 
would  force  him  in  a  few  years  after  graduation  to  seek  the 
assistance  of  agencies  for  instruction  and  research. 

In  administering  part-time  and  continuation  courses,  the 
first  aim  should  be  to  render  service  to  those  engaged  in  a 
particular  kind  of  work,  regardless  of  preconceived  entrance 
requirements.  If  necessary,  academic  standards  can  be  safe- 
guarded by  offering  certificates  or  degrees  of  a  different  grade. 
For  the  present,  the  function  of  government  departments  and 
educational  institutions  is  to  set  attainable  minimum  qualifica- 
tions for  enrolment.  In  due  course  of  time,  industrial  con- 
cerns will  themselves  raise  the  standards  for  the  persons 
whom  they  employ. 

Contact  with  Industry 

A  necessary  corollary  of  part-time  education  is  enlarged 
opportunity  for  instructors  to  come  into  more  intimate  contact 
with  industry.  Consultant  work  is  not  always  a  desirable 
means  of  gaining  practical  experience  because  if  well  done 
it  exacts  too  much  of  the  instructor's  time  and  energy. 
Furthermore,  work  of  this  character  can  be  accomplished  to 
better  advantage  by  well  established  bureaus  or  organizations 
with  more  facilities  than  the  average  professor  can  command. 
An  excellent  suggestion  is  afforded  by  the  plan  adopted  in 
1911  by  the  East  Pittsburgh  Works  of  the  Westinghouse 
Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company.  Each  year  a  five 
weeks'  course  of  study  is  offered  to  engineering  instructors 


A   NEW   EMPHASIS   IN   EDUCATION  333 

in  groups  of  from  14  to  30  members.  They  work  in  the 
plant  and  hold  meetings  under  the  supervision  of  the  company's 
educational  director  to  discuss  methods  of  teaching  and  listen 
to  lectures  on  engineering  subjects. 

Proposed  Plans 

A  report  presented  in  1918  by  the  Committee  on  Technical 
Training  of  the  National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools 
describes  some  of  the  ways  in  which  industries  are  co-operating 
with  technical  schools  of  college  grade.  The  plans  enumerated 
by  the  committee  include  the  following: 

1.  Conferences  between  professors  and  manufacturing 

experts  or  executives  for  the  purpose  of  improving 
courses  of  study  and  working  out  problems  and 
thesis  subjects. 

2.  Lectures  by  representatives  of  industrial  concerns  be- 

fore classes  or  meetings  of  instructors. 

3.  Arrangements  by  which  professors  may  be  aided  in 

collecting  data  upon  which  to  base  classroom  lectures 
or  problems. 

4.  Inspection  trips  or  observational  visits. 

5.  Employment  of  students  and  instructors  during  vaca- 

tions or  on  a  part-time  basis. 

6.  Co-operative  efforts  to  place  graduates  to  better  ad- 

vantage. 

7.  Provisions  for  supplying  schools  with  demonstration 

equipment,  models  of  machinery,  and  exhibits  of 
products  and  materials  in  process  of  manufacture. 

Very  little  has  yet  been  accomplished  by  the  industries  in 
assisting  schools  of  secondary  or  lower  grade.  Something 
has  been  done  through  inspection  trips  and  lectures,  but  in 
most  cases  no  technique  has  been  evolved  which  guards  against 
a  variety  of  obvious  disadvantages.  The  motion  picture  films, 


334  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

lantern  slides,  exhibits,  and  printed  material  prepared  by  a 
few  firms  are  suggestive  of  what  might  be  attempted,  but 
they  have  failed  thus  far  to  be'of  much  educational  value  be- 
cause the  advertising  element  has  been  too  prominent  in  them. 


CHAPTER  XX 

FIXING  RESPONSIBILITY  FOR  THE  NEW 
PROGRAM 

Responsibility  of  Government 

The  ultimate  responsibility  of  the  state  to  provide  voca- 
tional as  well  as  general  education  has  been  fully  recognized 
by  recent  legislation  and  by  executive  decisions.  National  aid 
for  vocational  education  is  an  accepted  fact  and  seems  likely 
to  be  greatly  extended  in  scope  and  amount.  The  functions 
of  the  state  are  to  set  up  minimum  administrative  requirements, 
to  train  and  certify  teachers,  and  to  equalize  local  differences 
in  willingness  and  ability  to  give  suitable  training  by  spreading 
the  burden  of  taxation  over  a  larger  area.  The  sphere  of 
national  authority  and  control  ought  to  consist  in  determining 
desirable  and  attainable  goals  and  in  equalizing  opportunities 
and  resources.  Both  state  and  national  control  are  advan- 
tageous so  long  as  they  combine  provisions  for  necessary 
uniformity  with  sufficient  active  encouragement  and  latitude 
to  enable  the  local  community  or  individual  factory  to  meet 
its  peculiar  needs  and  preserve  a  proper  initiative.1 

Responsibility  of  Industry 

The  economic  disadvantages  of  throwing  the  whole  respon- 
sibility for  training  on  the  shoulders  of  manufacturers  was 
stated  more  than  a  decade  ago  by  Alfred  Marshall  in  his  "Prin- 
ciples of  Economics."  After  referring  to  the  small  number 


1  For  a  discussion  of  the  principle  of  state  responsibility  for  education  and 
of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  state  control  in  general  education,  the 
majority  of  which  apply  here,  see  Cubberly's  "Public  School  Administration," 
Chapters  I-III. 

335 


336  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

of  employers  who  are  willing  to  appropriate  funds  for  the 
education  of  employees,  he  continues: 

And  even  they  cannot  alwayj  afford  to  carry  the  invest- 
ment of  capital  in  the  training  of  their  men  as  far  as  they 
would  have  done,  if  the  results  of  the  investment  accrued 
to  them  in  the  same  way  as  the  results  of  any  improvements 
they  might  make  in  their  machinery.  Even  they  are  some- 
times checked  by  the  reflection  that  they  are  in  a  similar 
position  to  that  of  a  farmer  who,  with  an  uncertain  tenure 
and  no  security  of  compensation  for  his  improvements,  is 
sinking  capital  in  raising  the  value  of  his  landlord's  property. 

Again,  in  paying  his  workpeople  high  wages  and  in  caring 
for  their  happiness  and  culture,  the  liberal  employer  confers 
benefits  which  do  not  end  with  his  own  generation.  For 
the  children  of  his  workpeople  share  in  them,  and  grow  up 
stronger  in  body  and  in  character  than  otherwise  they  would 
have  done.  The  price  which  he  has  paid  for  labor  will 
have  borne  the  expenses  of  production  of  an  increased  supply 
of  high  industrial  faculties  in  the  next  generation;  but  these 
faculties  will  be  the  property  of  others,  who  will  have  the 
right  to  hire  them  out  for  the  best  price  they  will  fetch; 
neither  he  nor  even  his  heirs  can  reckon  on  reaping  much 
material  reward  for  this  part  of  the  good  he  has  done. 

Drawing  the  Line 

Education  in  technical  and  general  vocational  subjects  for 
younger  pupils  is  already  well  supported.  The  moot  ques- 
tions in  financial  support  and  executive  control  of  industrial 
training  center  about  specific  occupational  preparation,  and 
training  on  a  part-time  basis  for  promotion.  In  the  majority 
of  cases  it  appears  to  be  wise  to  divide  the  financial  respon- 
sibility. Schools  or  classes  for  younger  students,  such  as 
continuation  schools,  general  industrial  schools,  part-time 
schools,  or  evening  classes,  where  the  training  is  sufficiently 
broad  in  scope  to  enable  the  worker  to  utilize  it  in  several 
different  lines,  should  be  free  to  the  pupil  and  supported 
entirely  at  state  or  federal  expense.  For  older  students  or 


RESPONSIBILITY   FOR   THE   NEW    PROGRAM  337 

for  training  useful  to  only  one  concern,  the  burden  should 
be  divided  between  the  public  and  the  individual  firm,  the 
proportion  to  be  contributed  by  the  firm  varying  according 
to  the  character  of  the  instruction.  For  classes  for  advanced 
students,  such  as  minor  executives,  employment  managers,  or 
foremen,  a  fee  may  well  be  paid  by  the  student,  the  amount 
in  some  cases  to  be  refunded  by  the  firm  after  a  certain  period 
of  service. 

Possible  Resources 

The  possibilities  of  special  forms  of  taxation  are  sug- 
gested by  the  fact  that  our  manufacturing  industries  in  1914 
represented  a  capital  investment  of  $22,790,980,000.  The 
year's  pay-roll  was  $5,367,249,000.  A  half  of  one  per  cent 
of  the  amount  paid  in  wages  would  have  placed  a  fund  of 
$26,836,000  at  the  disposal  of  the  management  in  these  firms 
to  use  for  training  employees,  employment  management,  or 
health,  sanitation,  and  housing  projects.  Many  firms  spent 
several  times  this  percentage,  but  because  of  the  lack  of 
concerted  action  and  public  support,  their  efforts  were  largely 
wasted. 

The  Small  Firm 

For  thousands  of  small  firms,  very  little  training  is  neces- 
sary and,  because  of  the  small  numbers  employed  in  any 
given  occupation  in  a  restricted  locality,  formal  instruction 
under  public  supervision  is  impracticable.  What  is  urgently 
needed  is  a  realization  on  the  part  of  such  employers  of  the 
possibility  of  improving  their  methods  of  supervision  and 
inspection,  and  of  induction  of  new  employees.  This  can 
only  be  accomplished  effectively  by  concerted  action  and  by  a 
pooling  of  resources  under  a  system  of  government  assistance 
which  provides  money  subvention  and  expert  advice  based 
upon  research. 


33^  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

The  British  Experiment 

The  British  government  has  undertaken  an  experiment 
which  may  serve  as  •  an  appropriate  model.  It  has  set  aside 
a  fund  of  a  million  pounds  sterling  to  be  used  by  an  industrial 
research  department.  The  appropriation  is  to  be  expended  on 
a  co-operative  basis  in  the  form  of  contributions  to  special 
associations  of  manufacturers  to  be  established  for  research 
purposes.  Each  co-operating  firm  is  assessed  an  amount  to 
be  determined  by  the  size  of  the  plant,  and  enjoys  the  follow- 
ing privileges: 

1.  It  will  have  the  right  to  put  technical  questions  and  to 
have  them  answered  as  fully  as  possible  within  the  scope  of 
the  research  organization  and  its  allied  associations. 

2.  It  will  have  the  right  to  recommend  specific  subjects 
for  research,  and  if  the  committee  or  board  of  the  research 
organization  of  that  industry  consider  the  recommendation 
of   sufficient  general   interest  and   importance,   the   research 
will  be  carried  out  without  further  cost  to  the  firm  making  the 
recommendation,  and  the  results  will  be  available  to  all  the 
firms  in  the  organization. 

3.  It  will  have  the  right  to  the  use  of  any  patents  or  secret 
processes  resulting  from  all  researches  undertaken,  either  with- 
out payment  for  licenses,  or  at  only  nominal  payment  as  com- 
pared with  firms  outside  the  organization. 

4.  It  will  have  the  right  to  ask  for  a  specific  piece  of 
research  to  be  undertaken  for  its  sole  benefit  at  cost  price,  and, 
if  the  governing  committee  or  board  approve,  the  research  will 
be  undertaken. 

"Unit"  versus  "Dual"  Control 

Discussion  of  the  administrative  control  of  vocational 
education  has  created  two  strongly  opposing  factions.  One 
group  maintains  that  the  existing  school  authorities  are  not 
interested  in  specific  training  and  that  their  experience  unfits 


RESPONSIBILITY   FOR   THE   NEW   PROGRAM  339 

them  for  dealing  with  factory  matters.  They  contend  that 
schoolmen  have  disregarded  the  advice  of  advisory  boards 
composed  of  manufacturers  and  business  men  and  have  been 
unwilling  to  employ  capable  staff  experts  to  organize  and 
supervise  vocational  classes.  The  more  radical  members  of 
this  group'  recommend  a  system  of  separate  boards  and  ad- 
ministrative officers  as  the  only  means  of  gaining  headway 
against  academic  traditions. 

The  opposing  attitude  was  well  stated  by  Dr.  Charles  A. 
Prosser  in  an  address  which  he  delivered  in  New  York  City 
in  1914. 

Whatever  may  be  our  individual  opinions  with  regard 
to  the  proposal  that  the  states  and  local  communities  estab- 
lish separate  and  independent  systems  of  schools  for  voca- 
tional education,  every  indication  seems  to  show  that  the 
American  people  are  not  ready  for  this  step  and  that  they 
want  first  to  give  the  regular  school  system  a  chance  to 
deal  with  the  task.  The  American  people  do  not  want,  if  it 
can  be  avoided,  two  different  systems  of  education  in  the 
same  community  competing  for  the  same  children ;  competing 
for  the  same  funds  out  of  the  same  public  treasury.  .  .  . 

Whatever  may  be  the  situation  elsewhere,  a  dual  system 
of  vocational  education  for  New  York  City  is  unthinkable. 
Everybody  recognizes  that  the  magnitude  and  complexity 
of  the  task  make  it  impossible  under  the  conditions  which 
obtain  in  New  York  City  to  handle  the  matter  in  any  other 
way  than  under  the  regular  Board  of  Education.  The 
schools  of  New  York  City  are  going  to  be  called  upon  to 
deal  with  this  subject  of  vocational  education.  If  they  fail, 
if  they  make  that  education  academic  instead  of  practical, 
if  they  fail  to  serve  the  interests  of  those  who  ought  to  be 
prepared  for  their  work  in  life,  if  they  do  not  secure  and 
use  this  information  that  the  practical  man  has  to  contribute, 
if  a  distinctive  management  is  not  established  which  will 
enable  these  schools  to  grow  up  and  realize  their  aim  un- 
hampered by  traditions,  then  we  shall  have  a  demand  for  an 
independent  system  for  vocational  education. 


340  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

In  other  sections  of  this  address,  Dr.  Prosser  shows  that 
there  are  strong  arguments  in  favor  of  independent  authoriza- 
tion, but  that  all  of  these  can  and  should  be  attained  through 
a  plan  of  "distinctive  management"  operating  under  the 
regular  board  of  education.  This  means  granting  a  larger 
field  of  responsibility  and  more  initiative  to-  persons  selected 
because  of  their  fitness  for  conducting  vocational  schools. 

Unit  Control 

The  leading  arguments  in  favor  of  ultimate  unit  control 
of  all  education  are: 

1.  It  insures  continuity  of  purpose  in  planning  and  direct- 
ing all  activities. 

2.  It    eliminates    duplication   of    effort    and    overlapping 
responsibilities." 

3.  Financial  support  can  be  more  evenly  distributed  and 
taxes  are  more  equitably  adjusted. 

4.  Flexibility  in  adjusting  the  program  to  fit  individual 
or  local  needs  is  not  possible  where  two  occasionally  opposing 
and  conflicting  agencies  occupy  the  field. 

Dual  Control 

Reduced  to  fundamentals,  the  arguments  favoring  divided 
or  dual  control  center  about  personalities.  The  fear  is  ex- 
pressed that  men  are  not  to  be  found  who  can  grasp  the 
need  for  all  forms  of  education,  or  who  will  see  that  each 
receives  its  due  share  of  support. 

Wisconsin  is  the  only  state  having  a  separate  organization 
for  directing  vocational  education.  There  is  a  State  Board 
for  Industrial  Education  with  control  over  state-aided  voca- 
tional schools,  and  in  each  community  the  regular  board  of 
education  appoints  two  employers  and  two  skilled  employees 
who,  with  the  city  superintendent,  are  held  responsible  for 
the  management  of  industrial  schools.  It  is  significant  that 


RESPONSIBILITY   FOR   THE   NEW   PROGRAM  34* 

the  strongest  advocates  of  this  system  have  taken  care  to 
explain  that  in  practice  it  is  "not  a  separate  but  a  delegated 
control,  .being  itself  controlled  through  appointment  by  the 
larger  body,  the  general  board."  2 

Vocational  Education  in  Massachusetts 

State-aided  vocational  education  in  Massachusetts  dates 
its  beginning  from  1906  when  the  Commission  on  Industrial 
and  Technical  Education  appointed  by  Governor  William  L. 
Douglas  reported  to  the  general  court.  As  a  result  of  recom- 
mendations based  on  a  survey  of  industrial  conditions  and 
the  work  then  being  done  in  the  schools  of  the  commonwealth, 
legislation  was  enacted  which  placed  the  administration  of 
state-aided  vocational  education  in  the  hands  of  a  commission 
on  industrial  education.  For  three  years  extremely  valuable 
pioneer  work  was  done,  not  alone  for  Massachusetts,  but  for 
the  entire  country,  since  but  little  trade  or  industrial  training 
was  then  being  attempted  anywhere  in  the  United  States. 
In  1909  the  work  of  the  commission  was  merged  with  that 
of  the  state  board  of  education.  A  deputy  commissioner  for 
vocational  education  with  a  staff  of  assistants  was  given  charge 
of  the  work  and  the  chairman  of  the  industrial  commission 
became  a  member  of  the  state  board  of  education.  The  aban- 
donment, of  the  commission  plan  was  brought  about  largely 
because  its  activities  could  not  be  satisfactorily  articulated 
with  those  of  other  state  agencies.  Under  the  new  plan, 
excellent  progress  has  been  made  with  none  of  the  friction 
and  duplication  of  effort  which  characterized  the  dual  system.3 
Under  certain  conditions  it  is  possible  that  preliminary  research 
or  the  organization  of  schools  may  profitably  be  undertaken 


2  H.  E.   Miles  in  Report  of  Committee  on  Industrial  Education  at  the  Twentieth 
Annual   Convention  of  the  National  Association   of   Manufacturers,   New  York,    1915, 
page  27  ff. 

3  For   a  resume   of   ten   years'    progress,   the   reader   may    consult    Bulletin    of   the 
Massachusetts   Board   of   Education,    1917,    No.    6,    "State-Aided    Vocational    Education 
in  Massachusetts." 


342  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

by  independent  commissions  or  boards,  but  routine  administra- 
tion appears  to  be  most  effectively  accomplished  under  a  central 
authority  reponsible  for  all  the* educational  activities  subject 
to  state  supervision. 

Vocational  Education  in  California 

California  may  be  given  as  an  example  of  several  states 
which  manage  their  vocational  schools  and  classes  through  a 
commissioner  of  vocational  education  appointed  by  and  respon- 
sible to  the  state  board  of  education.  No  special  body  has 
been  created  to  administer  state  work  under  the  Smith-Hughes 
Act,  the  state  board  of  education  having  been  empowered  to 
expend  both  state  and  federal  funds  for  vocational  education. 

Smith-Hughes  Plan 

The  salient  feature  of  the  national  situation  in  its  bearing 
upon  dual  control  is  that  funds  have  been  appropriated  for  a 
limited  number  of  purposes.  Under  the  Smith-Hughes  and 
preceding  acts,  financial  aid  and  supervision  are  possible  only 
for  teaching  agriculture,  home  economics,  and  trade  and  in- 
dustrial subjects.  Commercial  education  and  general  educa- 
tion have  been  entirely  disregarded.  This  will  lead  to  similar 
distinctions  in  the  states,  since  they  appropriate 'amounts  equal 
to  those  given  by  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education 
and  for  like  purposes.  The  national  government  through  this 
legislation  takes  the  stand  of  encouraging  certain  kinds  of 
education  to  the  exclusion  of  others  which  are  equally  vital 
to  industry  as  well  as  to  the  'public  welfare.  The  Smith- 
Hughes  plan,  whatever  its  deficiencies,  has  made  one  out- 
standing contribution  toward  solving  our  educational  problem ; 
it  has  given  representation  to  agriculture,  industry,  and  labor 
in  educational  direction.  This  is  a  suggestion  which  state 
legislation  ought  to  follow. 


RESPONSIBILITY   FOR   THE   NEW   PROGRAM          343 

Putting  the  Program  Into  Effect 

In  the  survey  presented  in  this  volume  the  discussions  have 
centered  about  a  number  of  well-defined  phases  of  the  subject 
under  consideration.  Each  chapter  gives  rise  to  a  variety 
of  conclusions,  all  of  which  must  be  viewed  together  in  order 
to  obtain  a  correct  perspective  of  industrial  training  as  a 
national  problem.  In  the  remaining  part  of  this  chapter  will 
be  summarized  the  results  of  our  survey  in  so  far  as  they 
reveal  suggestions  for  future  action.  Some  of  the  steps  imme- 
diately to  be  taken  will  be  briefly  outlined. 

Desirable  Governmental  Action 

State  and  national  responsibility  for  vocational  as  well  as 
general  education  should  be  recognized  through  legislation 
which  will  appropriate  funds  for: 

1.  Centralized  administrative  boards  and  executive  of- 

ficers. 

2.  The  training  of  teachers. 

3.  The  distribution  of  aid  for  local  schools  and  classes 

in  proportion  to  the  average  number  of  persons  in 
attendance,  the  character  of  the  work  attempted, 
and  the  amount  of  local  public  expenditure. 

Minimum  standards  should  be  agreed  upon  by  state  and 
federal  officers  and  enforced  by  state  authorities  for  the  train- 
ing and  certification  of  teachers,  school  equipment,  courses  of 
study,  and  school  attendance. 

The  training  of  employment  managers  and  of  teachers  for 
industrial  classes  should  be  regarded  as  a  governmental  func- 
tion of  utmost  importance.  For  the  time  being  the  work 
should  be  done  mainly  on  a  part-time  basis  or  in  short-unit 
courses.  To  secure  the  maximum  results,  great  care  should 
be  exercised  in  selecting  candidates  for  training. 

In  order  that  a  matter  of  so  great  importance  as  public 


344  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

education  should  receive  the  consideration  which  it  deserves, 
national  authority  ought  to  be  vested  in  a  member  of  the 
president's  cabinet  with  such  divisions  or  bureaus  in  his  depart- 
ment as  are  required  to  administer  federal  aid  for  the  states, 
conduct  surveys,  engage  in  research,  and  publish  reports. 

«. 

Fostering  Community  Enterprise 

Local  initiative  should  be  safeguarded  and  encouraged 
by  allowing  considerable  latitude  on  all  matters  of  general 
policy  and  by  leaving  the  administration  of  details  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  local  boards.  Financial  aid  from  the  state 
combined  with  minimum  requirements  have  been  found  ex- 
tremely powerful  incentives  to  a  higher  standard  of  accom- 
plishment. 

Comprehensive  community  and  plant  surveys  should  form 
the  basis  of  all  attempts  at  training  either  in  the  factory  or 
in  the  school.  As  managed  at  the  present  time,  vocational 
education  often  fails  to  give  the  kind  of  instruction  required 
for  the  development  of  efficient  workers,  and  neglects  entirely 
numerous  important  occupations.  Public  agencies  have  no 
right  to  refuse  training  for  any  legitimate  occupation  which 
includes  enough  persons  desiring  training  to  make  up  a  class 
of  reasonable  size.  Surveys  ought  to  be  planned  to  show  the 
existing  local  needs-  and  to  collect  data  for  teaching  purposes. 

Enlarging  Place  of  Public  Schools 

The  place  of  the  public  high  school  in  training  industrial 
workers  should  be  greatly  enlarged.  On  the  one  hand,  the 
secondary  school  can  extend  upward  to  include  practical 
courses  for  adults  in  shopwork,  mechanical  drawing,  factory 
management,  mathematics,  economics,  and  science.  It  can 
open  its  doors  to  community  forums,  Americanization  classes, 
trade  extension  courses,  or  meetings  of  employees.  In  the 


RESPONSIBILITY   FOR   THE   NEW   PROGRAM  345 

smaller  communities,  the  school  library  ought  to  be  extremely 
helpful  to  executives  and  operatives  alike. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  high  school  ought  to  be  the  center 
for  continuation  and  part-time  education.  The  boy  or  girl 
employed  for  the  first  time  ought  to  turn  naturally  to  the 
school  as  a  source  of  inspiration  and  assistance.  This  means 
adding  to  the  teaching  staff  men  and  women  of  large  practical 
experience,  many  of  them  employed  in  the  local  industries  on 
a  part-time  basis. 

Utilizing  the  secondary  school  for  industrial  as  well  as 
other  vocational  demands  will  be  more  effectively  achieved 
through  the  cosmopolitan  or  general  high  school  than  by  estab- 
lishing high  schools  of  special  type.  It  is  true  that  it  may 
not  always  be  practicable  to  put  such  work  in  the  general  high 
school  because  of  local  traditions  and  the  attitude  of  school 
officers  and  the  teaching  force.  Nevertheless,  the  general 
high  school  is  an  established  institution  with  large  capital  in 
the  way  of  prestige  and  popular  support  as  well  as  more 
tangible  assets,  such  as  buildings  and  equipment,  administra- 
tive staffs  and  teaching  forces.  It  can  be  enabled,  by  adaptation 
and  expansion,  to  meet  the  most  diverse  needs  of  the  modern 
community. 

Continuation  education,  not  less  than  six  hours  each  week, 
should  be  provided  for  those  under  eighteen  years  of  age. 
There  should  be  a  minimum  requirement  of  civics,  physical 
culture,  English,  and  history.  Beyond  this,  the  work  should 
be  determined  solely  by  the  occupational  and  social  needs  of 
the  student. 

In  order  to  increase  the  school's  opportunity,  the  com- 
pulsory school  age  should  be  increased  under  national  legisla- 
tion to  fifteen  years,  with  provision  for  a  child's  withdrawal 
at  fourteen  when  his  work  is  essential  to  the  family  support, 
or  when  he  is  a  public  charge,  or  when  further  school  at- 
tendance is  obviously  unprofitable. 


34^  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS 

Industry's  Share  of  the  Burden 

Industry  should  share  with  the  public  the  expense  of 
technical  and  trade  education  as*well  as  the  burden  of  conduct- 
ing research  in  all  employment  problems.  The  determining 
principle  for  distributing  the  load  should  be  the  nature  of 
the  instruction  or  research  undertaken.  Where  the  work  has 
general  public  value,  apart  from  its  worth  to  the  concern,  the 
proportion  of  state  aid  should  be  larger. 

Associations  of  manufacturers,  as  well  as  other  private 
agencies  capable  of  doing  research  or  participating  in  the  train- 
ing of  teachers  or  employees,  should  be  utilized  wherever 
possible  and  should  receive  direct  assistance  and  guidance  from 
state  and  federal  sources.  Duplication  of  agencies  is  wasteful 
and  productive  of  constant  disagreement.  It  may  be  avoided 
by  means  of  close  co-operation  between  public  and  private 
agencies. 

Every  industrial  enterprise  employing  500  or  more  persons 
should  have  the  services  of  an  educational  director  whose 
functions  will  be  of  the  nature  of  those  outlined  in  the  chart 
on  page  130.  Smaller  concerns  should  have  the  assistance 
of  state,  county,  and  municipal  officers  and  the  co-operation 
of  the  local  schools. 

Helping  Industry  Help  Itself 

Industrial  training,  as  well  as  many  other  forms  of  per- 
sonnel work,  can  be  accomplished  for  the  majority  of  small 
concerns  only  by  the  establishment  of  research  and  service  in- 
stitutions of 'a  new  type.  Bureaus  associated  with  universities, 
or  maintained  by  states,  cities,  or  private  commercial  organiza- 
tions, can  maintain  staff  services  for  companies  too  small 
to  employ  shop  instructors,  interviewers,  employment  man- 
agers, industrial  physicians,  and  other  personnel  workers. 

Such  bureaus  can  also  exert  a  large  influence  in  eliminating 
obsolete  methods  of  preparing  the  employee  for  his  task. 


RESPONSIBILITY  FOR   THE   NEW   PROGRAM          347 

Apprenticeship,  for  example,  is  unsuited  to  most  industrial 
pursuits.  Vestibule  training  and  short-unit  courses  are  the 
natural  substitutes. 

Where  apprenticeship  persists,  it  ought  to  be  under  state 
supervision  and  part-time  instruction  should  be  given  in  related 
technical  subjects.  The  period  of  apprenticeship,  moreover, 
should  be  shortened  in  view  of  adequate  previous  experience 
or  exceptional  ability. 

The  development  of  methods  for  training  foremen  is 
greatly  needed  in  many  concerns.  The  field  is  being  ex- 
ploited by  so-called  ''management  experts"  who  cannot  or 
will  not  do  the  careful  preliminary  research  upon  which  good 
instruction  depends.  Every  assistance  should  be  rendered 
industry,  to  the  end  that  this  very  important  factor  in  all 
enterprises — the  work  of  the  foremen — shall  receive  the  at- 
tention to  which  it  is  entitled. 

In  justice  to  employees  of  all  grades  and  for  the  good 
of  industry,  objective  efficiency  rating-scales  should  supplant 
the  opinion  of  foremen  or  supervisors  as  the  basis  for  wage 
increases,  advancement,  or  discharge.  Too  long  has  the  biased 
judgment  of  foremen  or  supervisors  determined  the  fate  of 
those  under  them.  No  opportunity  should  be  lost  to  impress 
upon  industry  the  value  of  intelligent  treatment  of  the  rank 
and  file  of  the  industrial  army. 

Fitting  Workers  for  a  "Larger  Life" 

Except  for  a  minor  number  of  occupations,  industrial 
training  cannot  be  regarded  as  preparation  for  a  life  work  in 
the  sense  that  a  normal  school  prepares  a  teacher  or  a  technical 
school  trains  a  chemist.  For  many  occupations,  indeed,  not 
much  of  that  sort  of  preparation  is  needed.  The  majority 
of  factory  operatives  need  only  a  short  period  of  preliminary 
instruction,  varying  from  a  few  hours  to  several  months. 
Beyond  this,  however,  workers  of  this  sort  should  have  oppor- 


348  TRAINING   INDUSTRIAL   WORKERS 

tunity  for  general  self -improvement,  for  retraining  in  case 
of  transfers,  and  for  preparation  for  promotion. 

The  most  serious  industrial  problems  arise  among  the 
unskilled  and  semiskilled  classes.  For  them,  industrial  educa- 
tion ought  to  mean  lessons  in  English,  campaigns  for  better 
housing,  education  in  thrift,  home-making,  hygiene,  and 
sanitation,  assistance  in  gardening,  or  in  arts  and  crafts,  better 
forms  of  recreation,  physical  training,  stimulation  of  capable 
persons  to  seek  the  training  necessary  for  advancement,  and 
acquaintance  with  the  elementary  economic  principles  of  the 
industrial  world  so  that  they  may  understand  their  environ- 
ment. 

Among  these  classes,  private  enterprise  has  done  little  be- 
yond what  the  most  urgent  necessities  have  required.  It  is 
true  that  working  and  living  conditions  have  been  slightly 
improved,  English  classes  have  been  provided  for  foreigners 
and  illiterates,  and  participation  in  the  benefits  of  sick,  acci- 
dent, and  death  insurance  has  been  encouraged.  If,  however, 
some  form  of  democratic  participation  in  management  is  to 
be  a  feature  of  industrial  enterprise  in  the  future,  much  more 
must  be  done.  The  employee  must  be  made  ready  for  the 
change  through  education.  And  for  the  accomplishment  of 
this  task,  the  school  and  industry  should  share  responsibility. 


APPENDIX  A 

EDUCATIONAL    SURVEYS    OF    TECHNICAL 
SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  AND  CLASSES 

As.  a  rule,  the  school  surveys  have  devoted  comparatively  little 
attention. to  secondary  education.  Several  of  them  contain  no  specific 
references  to  technical  schools  or  classes.  Even  the  so-called  "voca- 
tional" surveys  have  been  largely  concerned  with  trade  schools, 
continuation  and  evening  classes,  apprenticeship,  part-time  instruc- 
tion, and  other  similar  phases  of  training.  Such  references  as  do 
appear  are  significant  in  so  far  as  they  are  conclusions  reached 
after  a  thorough  examination  of  the  whole  educational  situation  in 
a  given  locality. 

Since  the  material  is  widely  scattered  through  the  several  surveys 
and  is  at  times  somewhat  difficult  to  interpret,  it  has  been  considered 
worth  while  to  collect  it  in  this  form  for  the  use  of  readers  who 
are  interested  in  vocational  education.  The  selections  were  chosen 
with  a  view  to  an  adequate  treatment  of  the  question  of  the  ap- 
propriate aims  and  work  of  technical  high  schools,  and  with  the 
thought  of  suggesting  proper  methods  of  approaching  the  problem 
of  their  administration,  rather  than  with  the  intention  of  presenting 
an  exhaustive  digest  of  the  statements  made  by  the  several  surveys. 


SURVEY  OF  CLEVELAND,  OHIO* 

The  report  offers  a  number  of  significant  comments  on  the  work 
of  the  high  schools.  "The  two  technical  high  schools,  the  East 
Technical  and  West  Technical,  occupy  an  important  place  among 
the  secondary  schools  of  the  city.  At  the  present  time  the  two 
schools  enroll  nearly  two-fifths  of  the  boys  attending  high  school. 
The  course  comprises  four  years'  work.  In  the  East  Technical  the 
workshop  includes  joinery  and  wood-turning  during  the  first  year, 
and  pattern-making  and  foundry-work  during  the  second  year.  In 
the  West  Technical  the  first-year  course  includes  pattern-making  and 
either  forging  or  sheet  metal  work;  and  that  of  the  second  year, 


1  Lutz,    R.    R.,    "Wage- Earning   and   Education,"    The    Survey    Committee    of   the 
Cleveland    Foundation. 

349 


35°  APPENDIX 

forging,  pipe-fitting,  brazing,  riveting,  and  cabinet-making.  During 
the  remaining  two  years  of  the  course  the  student  may  elect  a 
particular  trade,  devoting  about  19  hours  a  week  to  practice  in  the 
shop  during  the  last  half  of  the  third  year,  and  from  n  to  15  hours 
during  the  fourth  year."  The  remainder  of  the  student's  time  is 
devoted  to  the  usual  academic  subjects. 

The  state  law  in  Ohio  places  the  limit  of  the  compulsory  at- 
tendance period  for  boys  at  15  and  for  girls  at  16.  One  of  the 
results  has  been  to  force  into  the  high  schools  a  large  number  of 
pupils  who  plan  to  leave  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  end  of  the 
compulsory  period.  Since  a  large  proportion  of  the  boys  in  this 
group  naturally  prefer  some  form  of  education  which  seems  to 
promise  immediate  practical  benefits,  many  of  them  elect  the  technical 
courses.  "About  25  per  cent  of  each  entering  class  drops  out  after 
attending  one  year,  and  25  per  cent  of  the  remainder  by  the  end 
of  the  second  year.  By  the  time  the  third  year  is  reached  the 
classes  are  greatly  depleted  and  the  survivors  are  as  a  rule  of  the 
more  intelligent  and  prosperous  type.  Only  a  small  proportion  of 
them  expect  to  enter  skilled  manual  occupations." 

The  following  table  is  based  on  the  replies  to  questionnaires  sent 
to  all  graduates  of  the  East  Technical  High  School  up  to  1915. 
Although  the  numbers  involved  are  not  large,  they  show  that  the 
tendency  of  the  school  is  in  the  direction  of  -^reparation  for  civil, 
mechanical,  and  electrical  engineers. 

Distribution    by    Occupation   of    Cleveland    Technical  High    School 

Graduates2 

Occupation                                                     Number  Per  Cent 

Attending  college   1 1 1  39.2 

Draftsmen    51  18.0 

Electricians 33  1 1.6 

Machinists   32  1 1.2 

Chemists    8  2.7 

Pattern-makers  7  2.4 

Cabinet-makers    6  2.0 

Printers 3  1.5 

Foundrymen  i  0.3 

Unclassified   32  1 1.2 


Total 284         100.0 


2  Lutz,    R.    R.,    "Wage-Earning   and   Education,"    The    Survey    Committee    of   the 
Cleveland  Foundation.     Table  10. 


SURVEYS   OF   TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS  35  r 

Data  furnished  by  these  graduates  as  to  their  earnings  during 
successive  years  after  leaving  school  indicate  that  they  tend  to 
leave  the  manual  or  handwork  occupations  after  two  or  three  years. 
Less  than  2  per  cent  of  the  graduates  of  these  schools  are  working 
in  the  building  trades  as  artisans.  Other  statistics  presented  by 
the  report  show  that  the  occupations  represented  by  the  shop  courses 
offered  in  the  technical  high  schools  are  not  relatively  important 
among  the  city's  industries. 

The  conclusions  and  recommendations  of  the  survey  with  respect 
to  these  high  schools  may  be  summarized  thus: 

1.  The  technical  high  schools  seem  to  be  training  most  efficiently 
for: 

(a)  Higher  institutions 

(b)  Supervisory  and  executive  industrial  positions 

(c)  Drafting  and  office  work  in  manufacturing  plants 

(d)  Industrial  chemistry 

2.  Students  attending  only  one  or  two  years  would  derive  greater 
benefit  from  more  practical  courses. 

3.  Special  reports  were  made  by  the  Cleveland  Survey  on  the 
following  occupational   fields:  commercial  work,  department  stores, 
garment  trades,   dressmaking  and  millinery,   metal   trades,  building 
trades,   railroad   and   street   transportation,   printing   trades.     Aside 
from    preparing    for    certain    managerial    and    executive    positions, 
particularly  in  the  metal  trades  and  manufacturing,  the  reports  seem 
to  show  that  the  technical  high  school  courses  are  unsuited  to  present 
demands  in  these  occupations. 

4.  Since  preparatory  courses  for  college  or  for  technical  posi- 
tions differ  both  in  length  and  kind   from  trade  courses,   the  two 
cannot  be  economically  administered  together. 

5.  A  separate  trade  school  should  be  established  offering  two-year 
courses  to  boys  over  14.    It  is  estimated  that  if  only  half  the  number 
who   enter   the   skilled   trades    each   year   attended   the   school,   the 
enrolment  would  reach  at  least  800  boys. 

6.  Boys  who  do  not  expect  to  take  a  full  high  school  course  or 
who   intend  to   leave  at  the   end  of  the  compulsory  period  should 
devote  at  least  a  period  a  week  to  the  study  of  economic  and  working 
conditions  in  commercial  and  industrial  occupations. 

7.  Boys   under    17  years   of   age   are   as   a   rule   unable   to    find 
satisfactory  employment.      Employers   prefer  to  hire  older   persons. 


352  APPENDIX 

Those  who  leave  school  at  15  waste  much  of  their  time  during  the 
first  two  years  of  employment  and  acquire  unfortunate  habits. 

*  .  v* 

THE  INDIANAPOLIS-  INDIANA,  SURVEYS 

In  1910,  Indianapolis  had  a  population  of  233,650.  Of  the  107,757 
wage-earners  in  the  city,  43.7  per  cent  were  employed  in  manufac- 
turing or  mechanical  industries,  16  per  cent  in  trade,  14  per  cent 
in  domestic  and  personal  service,  9.3  per  cent  in  transportation,  and 
9  per  cent  in  clerical  work.  The  survey  found  that  about  1,200 
young  people  between  the  ages  of  14  and  16  were  employed  as 
wage-earners,  while  nearly  20,000  young  persons  between  14  and  20 
years  of  age  were  not  receiving  any  formal  instruction,  either  in 
the  schools  or  industry.  In  addition  to  training  its  own  population, 
the  city  is  to  a  certain  extent  a  training  and  distributing  center 
for  skilled  labor  throughout  the  state.  Many  students  are  attracted 
from  other  sections  who  are  seeking  better  educational  offerings 
than  can  be  had  near  their  own  homes. 

Indianapolis  supports  an  academic,  a  manual  training,  and  a 
technical  high  school.  Evening  classes  and  all-day  vocational  courses 
of  an  industrial  nature  are  offered  in  two  of  the  high  schools.  Manual 
training,  domestic  science,  drawing  and  design  have  been  encouraged 
in  the  elementary  schools.  The  John  Herron  Art  Institute  and  the 
Printing  School  of  the  United  Typothetae  co-operate  with  the  public 
schools  in  training  for  applied  design,  special  art  work,  and  the 
printing  trades. 

The  situation  in  Indianapolis  very  well  illustrates  the  problem 
of  determining  upon  a  proper  division  of  functions  between  a  manual 
training  or  composite  high  school  and  a  technical  high  school  in 
the  same  locality.  Both  schools  state  in  their  announcements  that 
they  prepare  for  normal  schools,  colleges  of  liberal  arts,  and  technical 
and  engineering  institutions.  It  appears  to  be  quite  possible  for 
students  in  the  mechanic  arts,  household  arts,  graphic  arts,  or  com- 
mercial courses  in  the  technical  high  school  to  elect  courses  which 
are  in  every  way  the  equivalent  of  similar  courses  offered  in  the 
Manual  Training  High  School.  The  survey  says  of  the  latter  school : 

"Its  courses  are  being  made  more  thorough  and  more 
practical.    A  closer  correlation  between  shop  and  classroom 


8  Report  of  the  Indianapolis,   Indiana,   Survey   for  Vocational   Education,  Indiana 
State   Board   of   Education,    1917.     Two  volumes. 


SURVEYS   OF   TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS  353 

work  is  being  promoted  and  the  school  will  act,  not  only 
as  a  center  for  manual  training  work,  but  as  a  subsidiary 
center  for  trade  and  technical  education,  especially  in  even- 
ing classes." 

The  chief  difference  between  the  two  schools  lies  in  the  extension 
of  the  work  in  the  Technical  High  School  to  include  numerous 
technical  trade  courses,  part-time,  and  two-year  vocational  courses 
not  attempted  in  the  other  school.  The  duplication  of  effort  involved 
in  preparing  students  for  college  and  normal  schools,  arose  largely 
from  the  conditions  of  overcrowding  existing  in  the  other  high 
schools  at  the  time  the  Technical  High  School  was  opened.  An 
examination  of  the  course  of  study  of  this  school  shows  that  it 
differs  only  in  the  extent  of  its  industrial  and  trade  training  from 
many  of  the  composite  or  general  high  schools  in  various  parts  of 
the  country. 

The  following  statements  based  on  the  survey  report  appear  to 
be  significant: 

1.  Junior  high  schools  are  proposed  which  shall  offer  four  funda- 
mental tryout  courses,  namely: 

(a)  Academic 

(b)  Commercial 

(c)  Household  arts 

(d)  Industrial,  including  agriculture 

The  survey  recommends  that  a  prevocational  or  junior  high 
school  emphasizing  industrial  and  agricultural  opportunities  be  estab- 
lished on  the  extensive  grounds  of  the  Technical  High  School,  some 
of  the  present  shops  to  be  used  by  the  junior  high  school  pupils. 

2.  The  Senior  Technical  High  School  on  the  Technical  grounds, 
should  make  provision  in  its  organization  plan   for  the  following 
groups : 

(a)  All-day  vocational  pupils  including  those  affected  by  present 

and  pending  trade  and  educational  agreements. 

(b)  Pupils  likely  to  assume  in  business  or  in  industry  positions 

of  responsibility  and  leadership. 

(c)  Those  pupils  planning  for  careers  in  business  or  industry 

which  require  not  only  skill  but  a  relatively  large  amount 
of  technical  knowledge  as  well.  For  example,  the  school 
should  offer  junior  engineering  courses  in  such  subjects 


354  APPENDIX 

as  architecture,  electricity,  gas,  steam,  heating  and 
ventilating,  chemistry  and  municipal  problems, 
(d)  Ample  provisions  should  be  made  for  the  training  of  girls 
and  women  in  those  Activities  in  the  home  and  in  the 
industries  which  the  findings  of  the  survey  strongly 
emphasize. 

It  is  recommended  that  this  work  be  given  in  all-day,  part-time, 
or  evening  classes  as  the  occasion  may  demand  in  order  that  the 
school  plant  may  be  fully  utilized  and  its  benefits  made  available  to 
all.  In  this  connection,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  Indianapolis 
has  neither  a  technical  college  nor  an  extension  department  which 
can  co-operate  with  her  industries  in  training  employees. 

3.  The   Technical   High    School   should  develop   an   agricultural, 
industrial,  and  commercial  museum.    "This  would  serve  to  strengthen 
the    instruction   given,   focus   the   attention   of   the   school    and   the 
factory  on  the  latest  achievements  of  .-interest  to  both,  and   make 
possible  a  permanent  up-to-date   exhibit,   to  complement   the   work 
done  by  interested  organizations  meeting  here  from  time  to  time." 

4.  The  vocational  departments  should  be  extended  in  accordance 
with  the  need  for  them  shown  by  the  demand  for  technically  trained 
and  skilled  workers  in  the  industries  of  Indianapolis. 

5.  An  effort  should  be  made  to  reach  apprentices  in  the  building 
trades  through  dull  season  classes,  particularly  in  the  winter  months, 
the  instruction   being  confined  to   shop  training,   drawing,   and  ap- 
plied mathematics  and  science. 

6.  There  should  be  an  extension  of  part-time  education  and  provi- 
sion for  compulsory  continuation  classes  for  permit  workers.     Some 
of  this  work  will  naturally  fall  within  the  scope  of  the  Technical 
High  School. 

7.  Vocational  courses  should  be  based  upon  a  thorough  analysis 
of  industrial  conditions,  carried  out  in  co-operation  with  employers 
and  technically  trained  men  engaged  in  the  industries  concerned. 


SCHOOL  SURVEY  OF  SOUTH  BEND,  INDIANA* 

While  this   survey   contains   no   specific   references  to  the   work 
of  technical  high  schools,  it  points  out  very  clearly  certain   faults 


4  Superintendent's   Report   and    School    Survey   by   the    Department    of   Education 
of  the  University  of  Chicago,  1914;  pages  138  to  167,  "Education  for  Vocation." 


SURVEYS   OF   TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS  355 

quite  commonly   found  in   such   schools  as  well  as  in  general  high 
schools  of  the  type  established  in  South  Bend. 

''Speaking  generally,  it  can  be  said  that  in  the  South 
Bend  schools,  we  find  the  concrete  practical  activities  on 
the  one  hand  very  largely  unillumined  with  mathematics, 
science,  and  design;  and  on  the  other  hand,  we  find  this 
same  science,  mathematics,  and  design,  given  without  con- 
crete foundation  or  application.  Two  things  that  belong 
together  are  found  divorced  from  each  other.  Neither  can 
be  educationally  effective  in  any  high  degree  until  they  are 
brought  together." 

Courses  for  girls  in  household  chemistry  and  physics  which  are 
closely  related  to  the  general  home-making  courses  are  now  offered 
in  a  number  of  schools,  but  there  is  a  distinct  tendency,  due  largely 
to  the  pressure  of  college  entrance  requirements  and  regents'  ex- 
aminations, to  retain  traditional  methods  in  science,  mathematics,  and, 
to  U  less  extent,  even  in  drawing. 

Another  recommendation  of  this  survey  concerns  the  shopwork 
offered  for  boys. 

"In  a  city  where  50  per  cent  of  all  the  men  are  employed 
in  manufacturing  and  mechanical  pursuits,  and  in  a  nation 
where  an  equal  proportion  of  the  men  are  so  employed,  it 
is  certain  that,  not  only  should  wood-working  be  developed 
along  the  lines  already  suggested,  but  other  lines  of  work 
should  also  be  introduced.  There  should  be  established  im- 
mediately, further  courses  involving  work  with  metals, 
particularly  steel  and  iron." 

It  is  a  common  occurrence  to  find  cities  where  courses  in  wood- 
working are  offered  through  two  years  of  the  elementary  grades 
and  continued  for  two  years  or  more  in  the  high  school.  Thus 
in  Minneapolis  in  1916  wood-working  was  given  for  five  successive 
years  from  the  sixth  grade  through  the  first  two  years  of  the  high 
school.  The  Stuyvesant  High  School  in  New  York  City  in  1918  had 
no  first-  or  second-year  students  in  metal-working  shops,  and  the 
small  amount  of  equipment  provided  for  advanced  students  afforded 
only  a  meager  experience.  There  is  certainly  no  adequate  justifica- 
tion either  in  educational  theory  or  industrial  demand  for  such  a 
procedure. 


356  APPENDIX 

VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  SURVEY  OF  MINNEAPOLIS, 
MINNESOTA  (i9i5)5 

Minneapolis  has  five  general  high  schools,  each  of  which  gives 
courses  in  manual  training,  drawing,  domestic  science  and  domestic 
art,  and  commercial  branches.  The  Girls'  Vocational  High  School 
and  the  Dunwoody  Industrial  Institute  give  practical  and  technical 
training  for  students  of  secondary  school  age.  The  Survey  concludes 
with  respect  to  manual  training  courses  in  the  high  schools : 

1.  About  two-thirds  of  the  49  graduates  of  all  courses  who  ex- 
pected to  attend  the  engineering  school  of  the  university  came  from 
the  manual  training  courses.    Of  149  graduates  of  the  manual  train- 
ing courses,  only   14  planned   to   enter  occupations   for  which   the 
work  of  the  school  had  been   a  direct  preparation.     These   facts, 
considered  in  connection  with  the  very  small  amount  of  total  time 
spent  in  the  shops,  drafting-rooms,  and  laboratories,  appear  to  in- 
dicate that  the  courses  cannot  be  said  to  function  directly  in  vocational 
preparation. 

2.  The  prevocational  value  sometimes  ascribed  to  manual  training 
courses  is  of  comparatively  slight  consequence  to  'students  in  Minnea- 
polis because: 

(a)  The  majority   of  the  pupils   who   would  profit  most   from 
the  opportunity  to  try  themselves  out  in  several  lines  of  work  drop 
out  during  the  first  two  years. 

(b)  The  variety  of  opportunities  is  too  limited  in  scope  and  the 
trades  represented  are  not  those  in  which  many  students  will  later 
engage. 

3.  The    intermediate    school   or  junior   high    school    is    the   best 
administrative  agency  yet  devised  for  meeting  the  need  of  training 
in  the  manual  and  industrial  arts  for  adolescent  boys  and  girls.    The 
training  in  each  of  these  arts  should  be  varied  in  kind  and  grade, 
but  should  be  sufficiently  constant  for  a  considerable  time  to  meet 
the  varying  interests   and   requirements  of  different  groups.     This 
training  should  enable  individual  pupils  to  select  the  kind  of  work 
for  which  they  are  best  adapted. 

4.  Short  courses  designed  to  meet  the  vocational  needs  of  elemen- 
tary school  graduates  should  be  offered  in  the  high  schools.     Where 


5  Vocational  Education  Survey  of  Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics,  United  States  Department  of  Labor,  Bulletin,  Whole  No.  199,  1917.  Pages 
41  to  82,  vocational  work  in  the  high  schools;  pages  431  to  538,  various  phases  of 
vocational  and  technical  education. 


SURVEYS   OF   TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS  357 

the  need  for  such  training  is  apparent,  pupils  of  the  first  two  years 
in  high  school  should  be  admitted  to  vocational  courses  now  reserved 
for  pupils  in  the  third  and  fourth  years. 

5.  Certain  of  the   high   schools   should  specialize   in  some   field, 
at  the  same  time  retaining  the  present  general  program  of  studies. 
A  technical  course  is  proposed  for  the  Central  High  School  intended 
to  offer  training  for  boys  who  desire  to  enter  industry  on  the  busi- 
ness and  directive  side. 

6.  An  advisory  committee  of  business  men  should  be  established 
to  assist   the  high  schools  to   standardize   their  training  and   adapt 
it  to  changing  commercial  demands.     Such  a  committee  would  be 
especially  helpful  in  promoting  the  efficiency  of  the  commercial  and 
shop  courses. 


SCHOOL  SURVEY  OF  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CALIFORNIA   (i9i6)6 

Of  the  five  day  high  schools  in  San  Francisco,  one  admits  girls 
only  and  four  are  coeducational.  Two,  the  Polytechnic  High  School 
and  the  High  School  of  Commerce,  were  established  as  specialized 
schools  but  they  have  gradually  enlarged  the  scope  of  their  activities 
until  both  are  strongly  college  preparatory  and  neither  is  strictly 
technical  or  commercial.  Some  attempt  has  been  made  to  allow 
students  enrolled  in  one  high  school  to  take  special  work  offered 
in  another,  but  the  location  of  the  schools  and  other  factors  have 
operated  to  make  this  practice  unsatisfactory. 

The  survey  encourages  the  tendency  to  establish  general  curricula 
for  all  the  high  schools  and  favors  the  abandonment  of  the  special 
school  for  girls. 

"In  the  country  as  a  whole  there  has  been  very  little 
popular  demand  for  a  policy  of  separating  the  sexes  in 
either  elementary  or  secondary  schools.  If  there  exists  any 
justification  for  a  separate  public  high  school  for  girls,  it  is 
to  be  found  in  the  desirability  of  providing  an  institution  in 
which  the  problems  of  preparing  girls  for  home-making, 
motherhood,  and  other  functions  peculiar  to  womanhood 
may  receive  such  special  attention  as  is  not  possible  or 


6  The  Public  School   System  of  San  Francisco,  California.     United  States  Bureau 
of   Education,    Bulletin,    1917,    No.   46. 


35^  APPENDIX 

practicable  in  the  usual  coeducational  school.    In  the  opinion 
of  the  survey  commission  this  justification  does  not  exist." 

The  report  recommends  the  opening  in  all  high  schools,  of  evening 
classes  which  will  provide  instruction  in  English  and  citizenship 
for  foreigners,  cooking,  sewing,  mechanical  drawing,  stenography, 
typewriting,  bookkeeping,  penmanship,  arithmetic'  printing,  and  such 
other  subjects  as  the  industries  of  the  city  of  San  Francisco  seem 
to  demand. 

Curricula  that  shall  be  substantially  uniform  for  all  students  for 
the  first  two  years  are  advocated  for  all  high  schools.  Specialization, 
under  faculty  direction,  is  to  be  allowed  in  the  last  two  years. 

"Unless  the  curricula  are  fairly  uniform  and  unless  they 
are  all-inclusive,  there  is  great  danger  of  developing  un- 
pleasant class  distinctions  and  stratification  of  groups  and  a 
real  social  cleavage  in  the  total  high  school  body  of  the 
city.  All  such  results  are  regarded  as  disastrous  and  an- 
tagonistic to  the  highest  welfare  of  a  democratic  society." 

The  report  points  out  that  more  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  industrial,  manufacturing,  and  commercial  life  of  the  city  in 
planning  the  high  school  courses.  The  section  on  vocational  educa- 
tion recommends  the  offering  of  various  vocational  courses  but 
declares  that  "the  attempt  to  prepare  for  college  through  these  voca- 
tional courses  should  be  definitely  abandoned." 


SCHOOL  SURVEY  OF  FALL  RIVER,  MASSACHUSETTS  (i9i7)7 

Fall  River  has  a  population  of  about  125,000.  The  manufacture 
of  textiles  is  the  only  industry  of  great  importance.  Two  coeduca- 
tional high  schools  are  supported  by  the  city — the  B.  M.  C.  Durfee 
High  School,  a  classical  preparatory  school,  and  the  Technical  High 
School,  organized  in  1913.  The  Bradford  Durfee  Textile  School, 
incorporated  in  1899,  is  tne  onty  other  school  offering  technical 


7  Unpublished  Report  of  the  Fall  River  Survey  made  by  the  Harvard  Division 
of  Education  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Ernest  C.  Moore.  Section  on  Secondary 
Education  prepared  by  Professor  Alexander  Inglis. 


SURVEYS    OF   TECHNICAL    SCHOOLS  359 

training  to  persons  of  secondary  school  age.  Its  activities  are  limited 
almost  wholly  to  vocational  courses  connected  with  the  textile  in- 
dustry. 

The  following  are  significant  recommendations  from  a  report 
on  the  public  schools  prepared  by  various  members  of  the  Division 
of  Education  of  Harvard  University: 

1.  Only  2,125   out  of   approximately    10,000  children   of   ages    14 
to  18  were  enrolled  in  school  in  1917.     Much  of  this  elimination  is 
ascribed  to  the  kind  of  instruction  offered  in  the  upper  grades  of 
the  elementary  schools.     The  establishment  of  junior  high  schools 
is   recommended  as   a   means   of  overcoming  this   situation   as   well 
as  a  practical  way  out  of  various  difficulties  including  the  problem 
of  overcrowding  in  both  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 

2.  Although  the  two  high  schools  are  located  in  adjoining  blocks, 
they   are   under   separate   management   and    no    arrangements    have 
been  made  for  pupils  in  one  school  to  take  work  in  the  other.    This 
has  given  rise  to  several  unfortunate  features: 

(a)  Pupils   in    the    B.    M.    C.    Durfee    High    School    are   denied 
any  opportunities  for  shopwork,  home  economics,  mechanical  draw- 
ing,  applied   design,   or   art  work;   while   Latin   is   not   offered   for 
college  preparatory  students  in  the  Technical  High  School. 

(b)  Traditional   regard   for  the   type   of   instruction   given   in   a 
classical  high  school  has  interfered  with  the   educational   guidance 
of   graduates    from   the   grammar   schools   and    has    set   up   an   un- 
democratic social  distinction  between  the  two  schools. 

(c)  The   expense   involved   in   the  duplication   of   administrative 
officers,  heads  of  departments,  and  laboratory   facilities  in  the  two 
schools  is  largely  needless. 

(d)  There  is  an  excessive  number  of  small  classes,  particularly 
in  the  last  two  years  of  the  Technical  High  School.     This  is  largely 
due  to  an  unnecessary  duplication  of  college  preparatory  classes  in 
the  two  schools. 

(e)  Pupils  in  either  school  who  discover  that  they  have  chosen 
a  course  unsuited  to  their  needs  or  abilities  cannot  be  transferred 
readily  to  the  other  school. 

For  these  reasons  it  seemed  advisable  to  the  survey  staff  that 
the  two  schools  be  placed  under  one  management,  that  curriculum 
heads  replace  department  heads  and  serve  both  schools,  and  that 
the  programs  be  so  arranged  that  pupils  in  one  building  could  take 
part  of  their  work  in  the  other.  Such  a  reorganization  would  prob- 


360  APPENDIX 

ably  reduce  the  total  teaching  staff  by  eliminating  numerous  small 
classes.8 

3.  No  definite  agreement  as  to  what  should  constitute  the  field 
of  service  of  the  Technical  Higft*  School  had  been  reached  by  the 
school  authorities  in  Fall  River  prior  to  1917.  The  reorganization 
of  the  curricula  proposed  by  the  principal  at  that  time  and  approved 
in  general  by  the  survey  is  as  follows: 

Technical  Courses  for  Boys 

Technical  A  Course:  for  boys  definitely  planning  to  enter  a  higher 
technical  school  or  college,  engineering  departments  of  colleges, 
and  scientific  courses  in  colleges. 

Technical  B  Course:  for  boys  wishing  to  enter  a  trade  or  branch 
of  industry  immediately  on  'leaving  school. 

Technical  Courses  for  Girls 

Technical  A  Course:  for  girls  preparing  for  home-making  employ- 
ments, higher  domestic  arts  schools  and  colleges,  and  for  state 
normal  schools. 

Technical  B  Course:  for  girls  whose  education  will  not  extend 
beyond  the  high  school  and  who  look  forward,  directly  or  in- 
directly, to  managing  a  home.' 

Technical  C  Course:  for  girls  with  special  talent  for  art  and  those 
preparing  for  applied  arts  courses  in  higher  institutions. 

Courses  for  Both  Boys  and  Girls 

Clerical  Course:  for  boys  and  girls  preparing  for  positions  in  the 
business  world  as  stenographers,  bookkeepers,  clerks,  secretaries. 
It  is  also  preparatory  for  normal  schools,  business  departments  in 
higher  institutions,  secretarial  and  library  courses  in  higher  in- 
stitutions. 

Business  Course :  for  boys  preparing  ultimately  for  the  more  respon- 
sible positions  of  business  life.     The  course  emphasizes  salesman- 
ship, advertising,  business  organization,  and  accounting. 
The  organization   of  junior   high   schools  and  the   consolidation 

of  the  two  high  schools  would  naturally  lead  to  certain  modifications 

of  this  general  plan. 


s  This    recommen Jation    has    been    adopted    by    the    Fall    River    School    Committee 
and  the  two  schools  are   now  administered  as   one. 


APPENDIX  B 

APPRENTICE  SCHOOL  OF  THE  LAKESIDE  PRESS 

The  apprentice  school  of  the  Lakeside  Press,  R.  R.  Donnelley 
and  Sons  Company,  Chicago,  was  established  July,  1908,  on  the 
basis  of  an  examination  of  the  work  done  by  the  apprentices  of  the 
Chaix  Printing  Company  of  Paris,  France.  The  object  of  the  school 
is  to  train  competent  workmen  who  will  have  a  thoroughly  practical 
and  theoretical  knowledge  of  the  business.  The  boys  not  only 
receive  the  necessary  trade  education  but  also  a  general  academic 
training  which  is  the  practical  equivalent  of  the  work  done  in  a 
high  school.  It  is  expected  that  some  of  them  after  careful  selection 
and  a  period  of  experience  and  trial  will  be  able  to  fill  responsible 
positions  in  the  factory  or  counting-room. 

The  school  occupies  a  special  room,  half  of  it  equipped  as 
a  model  composing-room  and  the  other  half  as  a  classroom.  Four 
instructors  are  provided:  a  supervisor  who  gives  a  part  of  the 
academic  work  and  has  general  oversight  of  the  boys  in  the  factory, 
an  instructor  in  printing  who  also  has  charge  of  the  trade  instruction 
in  the  school,  an  instructor  in  presswork  who  has  supervision  of 
apprentices  in  the  pressrooms,  and  an  instructor  in  drawing  and 
design.  Applicants  for  admission  must  be  grammar  school  graduates 
between  14  and  15  years  of  age.  The  school  record  must  show  good 
standing  and  excellent  moral  character.  Before  an  applicant  is 
finally  accepted  his  home  is  visited  by  the  supervisor  and  his  parents 
or  guardians  promise  to  co-operate  with  the  school  in  securing 
prompt  attendance,  devotion  to  studies,  and  good  quality  of  work. 

The  apprenticeship  course  is  divided  into  two  periods.  The 
younger  boys  serve  a  probationary  period  of  two  years,  spending 
half  their  time  in  school  and  half  in  the  factory.  Students  in  this 
course  are  divided  into  two  groups,  graded  according  to  their  stand- 
ings, and  both  groups  spend  three  and  one-half  hours  daily  in 
school  and  four  and  one-half  hours  in  the  school  shop  or  doing  work 
connected  with  the  factory  or  the  offices.  Those  who  successfully 


APPENDIX 

complete  the  preapprenticeship  courses  enter  upon  a  five-year  appren- 
ticeship period. 

Throughout  the  term  of  apprenticeship  very  close  co-operation 
is  maintained  between  the  home  =a*nd  the  school.  The  parents  receive 
monthly  reports  and  occasional  visits  are  made  to  the  homes  by  the 
supervisor  or  one  of  the  instructors.  The  monthly  report  contains 
specific  statements  regarding  the  boy's  work  in  tiie  shop,  all  standings 
being  based  upon  the  quality  and  quantity  of  work  performed.  It 
is  largely  due  to  this  feature  of  the  school's  work,  coupled  with  the 
careful  initial  selection  of  the  apprentices,  that  the  Lakeside  Press 
has  succeeded  in  graduating  68  boys  from  the  seven-year  course, 
a  total  of  57  per  cent  of  those  who  enrolled. 

Special  courses  are  offered  for  high  school  graduates,  the  time 
limits  depending  upon  the  individual's  ability,  the  kind  of  work 
done  during  the  high  school  course,  and  the  amount  of  previous 
experience.  Evening  classes  meeting  from  5:45  to  7:15  P.M.  are 
offered  for  apprentices  in  the  binder)'  and  photo-enlarging  depart- 
ments. 

The  following  outlines  suggest  the  kind  of  work  done  in  the 
probationary  and  apprenticeship  courses. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  PREAPPRENTICES 

FIRST   YEAR 
A — ACADEMIC 

Spelling:  Lists  of  words  used  in  the  different  departments  with 
the  accepted  trade  definitions,  geographical  names,  lists  of  words 
commonly  misspelled,  selected  lists  from  the  Printers'  Speller. 

Grammar:  Composition  based  upon  the  technical  work  so  that 
every  exercise  is  a  lesson  in  composition.  Attention  is  given 
to  English  in  mathematics,  science,  and  design  classes.  Proof 
marks  are  used  in  correcting  all  exercises. 

Correct  Usage:  Letter-writing,  copy-writing,  preparation  of  copy 
for  the  printer,  poetry  and  how  to  set  up  poetry  in  type. 

Reading:  Study  of  vowel  and  consonant  sounds,  chart  of  diacritical 
marks  with  key  words,  use  of  dictionary,  correct  articulation 
and  enunciation  as  the  basis  of  pronunciation,  practice  in  oral 
reading  to  train  copy-holders  for  the  proofroom6.  Each  student 
is  required  to  read  and  report  upon  at  least  six  volumes  of 
standard  literature. 


APPRENTICE   SCHOOL — LAKESIDE   PRESS 

B — ACADEMIC,  TECHNICAL 

English:  Spelling,  capitalization,  punctuation,  division  of  words, 
quotation  marks,  rules  for  compositors. 

Proofreading:  Marks  used  and  their  significance,  extensive  practice 
in  reading  proof,  signs  used  in  printing  or  use  of  special  punctua- 
tion, reference  and  commercial  signs,  the  use  of  accents,  and 
medical  and  technical  terms. 

Type:  Composition  of  type  metal,  type  sizes,  point  system,  punch, 
mold,  matrix,  and  nick,  various  styles  and  sizes  of  type  and 
the  methods  of  measuring  and  computing,  the  cost  of  com- 
position. 

Paper:  History  of  the  manufacture,  kinds,  sizes,  weights,  and  uses 
of  paper. 

C — TRADE  PRACTICE:  The  layout  of  a  case,  how  to  set  and  hold 
the  composing  stick,  elementary  type-setting,  spacing,  justifica- 
tion, taking  proof  and  correcting  the  type  in  the  stick. 


SECOND  YEAR 

A — ACADEMIC 

History  of  printing  in  England  and  America,  elementary  study  of 
electrotypes,  stereotypes,  half-tones,  and  zinc  plates. 

Principles  of  composition  including  determination  of  a  well-pro- 
portioned page,  elementary  design,  computation  of  amount  of 
stock  and  cost  for  a  given  job.  Principles  of  the  linotype  and 
monotype. 

B — TRADE  PRACTICE:  Study  of  book-making,  including  position  of 
type  on  a  page,  setting  half-titles,  title  pages,  copyrights,  and 
imprints,  preface,  and  table  of  contents.  Running  heads,  quotations, 
footnotes,  reference  marks,  insertion  of  engravings. 

C — ART  WORK:  Layouts  for  catalogue  pages,  advertisements,  cards, 
title  pages,  and  covers;  elementary  conventional  design  for  mono- 
grams, trade-marks,  head-pieces,  and  ornaments. 

STUDY  OF  COLORS:  Color-mixing,  harmonv,  color  schemes,  and  the 
use  of  colored  inks  on  tinted  papers. 


364  APPENDIX 

TRADE  COURSE  FOR  APPRENTICES 

COMPOSIKG-ROOM 
FIRST  YEAR 

Non-productive  work  to  familiarize  the  apprentices  with  factory 
routine,  based  upon  the  work  done  during  the  preapprentice  term. 
Proving  job  work.  Handling  materials:  sorts,  leads,  slugs,  rules, 
furniture;  distribution  of  job  type  to  learn  type  faces  thoroughly. 
Composition:  plain  matter;  job  composition. 

SECOND  YEAR 

Composition:  tabular  or  catalogue  to  train  apprentices  in  close  ap- 
plication and  constructive  work.  All  work  under  direct  supervision 
of  the  shop  instructor. 

THIRD  YEAR 

Composition:  job;  commercial  catalogue;  book;  make-up.  The  ap- 
prentices are  rotated  on  different  classes  of  work  to  determine 
their  future  specialization. 

FOURTH  YEAR 

The  apprentices  are  finally  worked  into  the  department  for  which 
they  show  the  greatest  interest  and  aptitude.  Operators  for  lino- 
types and  monotypes  selected. 

FIFTH  YEAR 

Specialization  in  the  department  selected.  Layouts  to  develop 
originality  and  character  in  their  work.  As  journeymen,  placed 
in  the  department  where  they  show  highest  efficiency. 

FIVE-YEAR  ACADEMIC,  TECHNICAL  COURSE  FOR  APPRENTICES 

PRESSROOMS 

PRESSWORK:  Object  of;  terms  used;  materials;  paper,  forms,  inks, 
rollers. 

THE  PRESS:  Parts  of:  the  bed;  the  cylinder;  the  bearers;  the  foun- 
tain; the  delivery;  the  feed-board;  the  grippers;  the  air  chamber 


APPRENTICE   SCHOOL — LAKESIDE   PRESS 

and  the  plungers;  the  brushes  and  bands;  the  rollers:  composition, 
care  of,  effect  of  weather  or  climate  upon,  value  to  printed  result. 

THE  FORM:  Materials  of;  cleanliness  of  bed  and  back  of  form; 
position  on  bed ;  position  to  gripper  edge ;  height  of ;  correct  lock-up ; 
correct  imposition. 

THE  STOCK:  Folding  according  to  grain,  right  or  wrong  side,  finish, 
register,  color. 

THE  INK:  Composition;  quantity;  defects  in  inking;  good  color; 
reliability  of  the  eye;  deception  of  the  eye;  safeguards,  uniformity 
maintained  by  means  of  O.K.'s.  Offset,  how  to  prevent. 

THE  FEEDER:  Duties  of:  handling  the  stock;  feeding  to  guides; 
cleanliness. 

THE  PRESSMAN  :  Duties  of:  make-ready;  the  care  of  the  press;  watch- 
ing the  job. 

COLOR:  In  a  pressroom,  the  term  color  means  ink,  or  the  quantity 
of  ink  used,  not  necessarily  colors  as  ordinarily  used ;  for  example, 
black  ink  properly  distributed  on  white  paper  is  said  to  be  "good 
color,"  not  enough  ink  would  be  called  "light  color,"  and  too  much 
ink  "heavy  color."  Color  contrast.  Colored  stock,  effects  of. 
Primary  colors :  yellow,  red,  blue.  Daylight  and  darkness.  Mixing 
colors  to  secure  secondary  colors,  tones,  and  shades.  Transparency 
of  colors  as  used  in  process  work;  superposition  of  colors.  Cleaning 
the  press  for  colors. 


APPENDIX  C 

EDUCATIONAL    ACTIVITIES    OF    THE    GENERAL 
ELECTRIC  COMPANY 

The  educational  activities  of  the  Schenectady  plant  are  carried 
on  in  two  divisions:  (i)  the  apprentice  school,  and  (2)  a  group  of 
other  educational  activities  to  be  enumerated  later.  The  work  of 
the  apprentice  school  is  under  the  supervision  of  a  director  who 
reports  to  the  general  manager  of  the  Schenectady  plant.  The  other 
educational  courses  are  controlled  by  a  local  commitee  which  in 
turn  is  under  the  general  supervision  of  a  committee  made  up  of 
one  representative  from  each  of  the  General  Electric  plants.  The 
general  committee  reports  to  the  president  of  the  General  .Electric 
Company,  who  controls  the  finances  available  for  educational 
purposes. 

THE  SHOP  APPRENTICE  SYSTEM 

Boys  between  16  and  18  years  of  age  who  give  satisfactory  school 
references  and  are  acceptable  to  the  company  may  enroll  in  appren- 
tice courses  offered  for  machinists,  draftsmen,  molders  and  core- 
makers,  and  blacksmiths.  After  serving  a  probationary  period  vary- 
ing from  30  to  60  days,  an  apprentice  agreement  is  signed  covering 
a  four  years'  period  of  training.  Machine-shop  apprentices  begin 
work  in  a  special  training  department  under  shop  instructors,  where 
they  remain  for  a  length  of  time  varying  from  one  to  two  years 
before  being  transferred  to  the  works.  The  output  of  the  training 
department  is  all  of  a  commercial  nature  so  that  the  work  is  thor- 
oughly practical  from  the*  beginning.  After  being  transferred  to 
the  machine-shops  or  toolrooms  in  the  plant,  the  apprentice  remains 
under  the  supervision  of  the  apprentice  department,  which  co-operates 
with  the  shop  foremen  and  department  instructors.  Apprentices  in 
the  foundry  and  blacksmith  shop  begin  work  at  once  in  the  plant 
shops  side  by  side  with  regular  workmen.  Draftsmen  spend  their 

366 


EDUCATION   WORK GENERAL   ELECTRIC   CO.        367 

first  year  in  the  blue-print  and  tracing  departments,  the  second  in 
the  shops,  and  the  third  and  fourth  years  in  the  drafting  depart- 
ments. During  the  fourth  year  two  weeks  are  spent  in  the  physical 
testing,  laboratory.  .Machinist  and  draftsman  apprentices  spend  two 
hours  a  day  for  two  days  a  week  in  classroom  study.  The  subjects 
include  mathematics,  mechanics,  practical  talks  by  shop  men,  and 
mechanical  drawing  for  machinists. 

COURSES  UNDER  THE  EDUCATIONAL  COMMITTEE 

i  .STUDENT  COURSE  FOR  TECHNICAL  GRADUATES: 

Young  men  who  have  a  technical  college  training  or  its  equiva- 
lent may  enroll  for  a  year's  course  in  the  testing  department, 
to  be  followed  by  further  work  in  special  extension  courses 
open  to  men  with  marked  ability  who  desire  to  specialize  in 
various  departments  of  the  electrical  industry.  The  first 
year's  course  at  Schenectady  includes  a  three  months'  assign- 
ment in  one  of  the  designing,  departmental,  manufacturing, 
or  commercial  sections.  At  the  Pittsfield  works,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  year  is  given  to  regular  testing  department 
work  in  the  local  plant.  Students  are  required  to  attend 
lectures  by  the  company's  department  heads  and  other 
authorities  upon  subjects  relative  to  engineering  or  the  com- 
mercial and  administrative  aspects  of  the  electrical  industry. 

2.  EVENING  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOL: 

Evening  schools  are  conducted  inside  the  works  exclusively 
for  employees  and  convene  immediately  at  the  close  of  the 
working  day.  They  are  under  the  joint  jurisdiction  of  the 
company  and  the  city  board  of  education.  Tuition  and  books 
are  free  to  students  attending  80  per  cent  of  the  sessions. 
The  following  courses  are  offered: 

(a)  Accountancy 

(b)  Business  administration 

(c)  Business  arithmetic 

(d)  Business  English 

(e)  Stenography 

(f)  Typewriting 

(g)  Phonograph  dictation 


368  APPENDIX 

3.  STENOGRAPHIC  VESTIBULE  TRAINING  CLASS: 

This  class  is  organized  for  training  all  stenographers  entering 
the  employ  of  the  Genera}  Electric  Company's  Schenectady 
plant,  to  give  them  a  knowledge  of  office  practice  of  the  com- 
pany.   The  work  covers  two  weeks. 
/ 

4.  EVENING  CLASSES  AT  UNION  COLLEGE: 

During  the  1917-18  college  year,  85  per  cent  of  the  evening 
students  at  Union  College  were  General  Electric  employees, 
142  being  enrolled.  The  company  refunds  half  of  the  tuition 
fees  of  employees  whose  attendance  records  are  80  per  cent 
or  better.  The  following  courses  enroll  the  majority  of  those 
in  attendance: 

(a)  Mathematics 

(b)  Physics 

(c)  Chemistry 

(d)  Economics 

5.  POSTGRADUATE  COURSE  AT  UNION  COLLEGE: 

A  limited  number  of  qualified  graduates  of  colleges  and  univer- 
sities may  obtain  a  Master  of  Science  degree  in  electrical 
engineering  through  a  special  course  arranged  for  employees 
of  the  General  Electric  Company.  Classes  meet  at  the  college 
Friday  mornings  from  9  o'clock  until  noon.  The  course  may 
cover  a  period  of  two  or  three  years.  The  company  refunds 
$40  of  the  fee  of  $75  charged  for  tuition  and  the  degree. 

6.  COMPTOMETER  SCHOOL: 

A  class  for  clerical  employees  meets  four  evenings  a  week 
between  5  and  7  P.M.  The  company  provides  an  instructor 
and  serves  supper  on  the  evenings  when  the  class  meets. 

7.  TESTING  DEPARTMENT  COURSE: 

A  two-year  departmental  course  for  young  men  having  less 
than  college  preparation.  The  course  consists  of  work  in 
the  shop,  where  the  boys  are  under  individual  instructors, 
and  of  classroom  exercises  of  one  hour  or  more  each  week. 


EDUCATION    WORK GENERAL   ELECTRIC    CO.        369 

The  instruction  includes  lectures  on  direct-  and  alternating- 
current  theory  and  training  in  the  use  of  machines  and 
instruments  for  testing  of  the  slide  rule  for  engineering 
calculations.  Many  of  the  students  attend  night  school,  the 
vocational  schools,  or  the  Union  College  courses,  in  addition 
to  the  work  offered  by  the  company.  Students  spend  50 
hours  a  week  in  the  shops,  attend  classroom  one  hour  or 
more  a  week,  and  are  paid  for  51  hours  of  work.  For  every 
week  in  which  the  time  record  is  perfect,  they  are  paid  for 
52  hours. 

8.  COURSE  FOR  SWITCHBOARD  DEPARTMENT  TESTING  MEN: 

Similar  to  the  course  described  under  7  above.  The  course 
allows  two  hours  each  week  of  classroom  instruction  on 
the  company's  time. 

9.  COURSE  FOR  WOMEN  TECHNICAL  ASSISTANTS: 

These  courses  were  established  during  the  war  period  for 
training  young  women  college  graduates  for  commercial  and 
semitechnical  careers  in  the  electrical  industry.  During  the 
three  months'  probation  period,  students  attend  class  one 
hour  each  day,  the  instruction  dealing  with  apparatus,  theory, 
and  departmental  organization  and  routine.  Later  in  the 
course  technical  lectures  are  given  on  electrical  theory  and 
the  practical  methods  in  use  in  the  shops.  The  majority  of 
the  young  women  are  being  trained  to  enter  the  estimating 
and  cost  accounting  departments;  so  the  latter  portions  of 
the  course  emphasize  manufacturing  costs,  specifications, 
quotations,  contracts,  and  other  details  of  estimating  and 
cost  accounting. 

10.  LOCAL  EVENING  SCHOOLS: 

Classes  to  which  all  General  Electric  employees  are  eligible 
are  held  in  the  evening  at  three  Schenectady  public  schools 
and  at  the  high  school.  Tuition  and  text-books  are  free  of 
charge.  The  number  of  employees  enrolled  for  the  year 
1917-18  was  877.  The  elementary  courses  are  for  boys 
between  the  ages  of  14  and  16,  who  must  attend  50  nights 
a  year  under  the  compulsory  education  law.  The  high  school 


370  APPENDIX 

classes  are  held  from. 2  to  4  hours  each  week  and  provide 
the  following  courses: 

*    -     '       .  y* 

Spanish  Mechanical  Drawing 

French  Architectural   Drawing 

German  Shop  Mathematics 

Algebra  United  States  History 
Plane   and    Solid   Geometry 

Trigonometry  For  Girls  only: 

Mechanics  Cooking 

Applied  Electricity  Dressmaking 

Electrical   Engineering  Millinery 

Chemistry  Physical  Training 


APPENDIX  D 

THE     SOLVAY     PROCESS     COMPANY    TRAINING 

SCHOOL 

The  Solvay  Process  Company,  Solvay,  N.  Y.,  conducts  a  school 
with  the  aim  of  developing  foremen  in  special  departments,  labora- 
tory and  drafting  department  men,  and  also  employees  who  fit  into 
other  special  work  in  the  plant.  The  students  spend  one  week 
in  the  school  and  the  alternating  week  in  the  plant  and  are  paid 
both  while  attending  the  school  and  while  working.  Except  in 
cases  where  the  students  are  of  exceptional  ability  or  have  had 
satisfactory  previous  education,  they  are  expected  to  remain  in  the 
school  two  years.  Each  year  is  divided  into  three  terms  of  four 
months'  duration,  so  that  students  entering  at  various  times  during 
the  year  may  be  properly  placed  upon  enrolment.  Emphasis  is 
placed  upon  giving  the  students  enrolled  general  education  in  addition 
to  technical  training  for  the  work  of  the  Solvay  Process  Company. 
Only  one  full-time  instructor  is  employed,  thus  making  it  necessary 
to  divide  some  of  the  class  periods  into  two  sections,  one  having 
a  class  exercise  while  the  other  is  engaged  in  individual  study.  The 
following  duties  are  to  be  undertaken  by  the  supervisor  in  addition 
to  carrying  out  the  daily  program  of  the  school : 

1.  Examination  of  applicants  and  investigation  of  their  public 

school  record  and  home  conditions. 

2.  Keeping  records  of  students  and  graduates. 

3.  Attend,  by  reports  and  personal  consultation,  to  boys*  transfers 

and  troubles  with  superintendents,  foremen,  and  men. 

4.  Change  of  courses  and  additional  new  work  as  school  grows. 

5.  Take  students  on  tours  of  inspection. 

6.  Keep   school  committee   informed,  by  meetings  and   reports, 

of  school's  progress  and  submit  changes  and  extensions. 

7.  Keep  informed  as  to  boys'  home  conditions  and  as  to  general 

conduct  outside  of  working  hours  in  co-operation  with  parents. 

8.  Extension  work  among  graduates. 

9.  Extend,  by  blue-prints,  charts,  and  descriptive  text  the  special 

work  in  the  school  for  class  and  individual  instruction. 


372 


APPENDIX 


FRIDAY 

PHYSICS 
Class  Instruction 
2nd  Year  Class 

Individual  Study 
ist  Year  Class 

SHOP  PROBLEMS 
Speeds,  feeds,  etc. 
Estimate  of  work. 

LECTURE  ON: 
Coal,  Iron,  Steels,  Metal- 
lurgy, Selection  of  Ma- 
terials •  *Y  . 

ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

pertaining  to  Shop  and 
School  Work 

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This  period  reserved  for 
lectures  by  experts 
from  different  depart- 
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TRAINING   SCHOOL — SOLVAY  PROCESS   CO.  373 

The  school  week  of  325/2  hours  is  divided  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  schedule  of  subjects.  Only  the  minimum  hours  for  each 
subject  are  given  below.  During  the  period  set  aside  for  individual 
study,  students  are  assisted  in  their  weak  subjects  and  special  work 
is  done  which  applies  directly  to  each  student's  tasks  in  the  plant. 

Class  instruction: 

Report-writing  with  discussions  and  corrections; 

English  composition    5       hours 

Mathematics,  including  shop  problems 7 

Mechanical  drawing  il/2       " 

Free-hand   drawing,    sketching,    and    reading   of 

blue-prints   il/2 

Chemistry   2 

Metallurgy  and  selection  of  materials i 

Physics   2 

Electricity    i 

General  education   5 

26 

Individual  study 4^2      " 

Total 30^      " 


APPENDIX  E 

EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  MONTGOMERY  WARD 
AND  COMPANY 

The  educational  director  of  Montgomery  Ward  and  Company 
recently  made  the  following  statement  concerning  the  educational 
work  conducted  by  the  company. 

"After  three  years  of  study  and  experimentation  on  educational 
work  in  our  plant,  we  have  definitely  arrived  at  a  policy  of  putting 
90  per  cent  of  our  expenditure  and  energy  in  educational  work  into 
what  we  call  'plant  instruction/ 

"Our  plant  instructor  has  a  duplicate  section  of  a  merchandise 
division  in  which  standardized  merchandise  bins  and  tables  are  in- 
stalled. Newly  employed  persons,  hired  for  such  positions  as  pricing, 
stock-keeping,  order-filling,  checking,  wrapping,  and  packing,  are 
given  from  one-half  day  to  a  day  preliminary  instruction  before  going 
to  their  duties. 

"The  educational  department,  through  the  plant  instructor,  con- 
trols the  education  of  men  and  women  hired  for  executive  positions. 
These  men  and  women  are  sent  through  the  plant,  working  a  certain 
number  of  days  in  each  division  until  they  are  fully  conversant  with 
our  various  operating  activities.  At  the  same  time  their  work  and 
characteristics  are  closely  observed  so  that  they  can  be  placed  in 
positions  for  which  they  are  best  fitted.  This  form  of  education 
lasts  from  two  weeks  to  two  months,  depending  upon  the  individual's 
experience,  ability,  and  prospective  value. 

"We  maintain  a  school  for  typists  under  competent  instructors, 
having  classes  six  hours  per  day  in  the  simplest  forms  of  typing, 
such  as  filling  in  form  letters,  etc.  During  the  balance  of  the  day 
these  girls  perform  their  regular  duties  and  are  paid  for  full  time. 

"In  our  correspondence  department,  supervising  instructors  take 
charge  of  new  employees  and  teach  them  our  system  and  policy  of 
correspondence.  These  are  the  chief  activities  in  plant  instruction 
at  present,  but  it  is  continually  broadening  and  developing. 

"Aside  from  plant  instruction,  we  provide,  from  September  to 

374 


EDUCATION   WORK — MONTGOMERY  WARD   &   CO.    375 

June,  evening  classes  for  young  women  to  icarn  typing,  stenography, 
English  and  arithmetic,  and  for  young  men  to  learn  English,  arith- 
metic and  the  general  principles  of  our  business.  We  do  not  believe 
that  these  evening  classes  are  of  great  value  to  the  mass  of  our 
employees;  the  percentage  of  attendance  is  very  low — perhaps  an 
average  of  200  persons  out  of  5,000 — but  they  serve  an  excellent 
purpose  in  that  they  bring  to  light  the  more  ambitious  employees 
who  are  willing  to  sacrifice  their  time  evenings  to  advance  themselves. 
The  instructors  are  all  persons  in  executive  positions  and  the  director 
of  the  evening  classes  is  connected  with  the  employment  department; 
thus,  we  are  able  to  discover  promising  material  worthy  of  advance- 
ment and  such  people  get  ahead  very  quickly. 

"To  sum  up,  after  several  years'  experience,  we  are  of  the 
opinion  that  in  an  industrial  establishment  like  ours  which  employs 
almost  no  illiterate  people,  there  is  no  necessity  for  the  teaching 
of  subjects  that  are  taught  in  the  public  evening  schools  and  that 
the  only  advantage  in  teaching  such  subjects  is  to  get  in  touch  with 
the  more  promising  material  among  our  employees. 

"Most  of  the  men  and  women  holding  such  titles  as  'Educational 
Director'  or  similar  positions  in  commercial  institutions  are  idealists, 
sincerely  endeavoring  to  carry  out  plans  for  the  betterment  of  the 
employees  in  their  establishments,  but  failing  to  consider  the  subject 
from  the  dollars  and  cents'  viewpoint  of  business.  As  a  result,  their 
efforts,  while  well  meant,  cause  a  duplication  of  what  can  better 
be  done  in  the  public  evening  schools  and  a  corresponding  failure 
to  accomplish  practical  instructions  of  tangible  value  to  the  employee 
and  the  company  in  the  operation  of  the  business." 


APPENDIX  F 

STANDARD  PRACTICE  FOR  OPERATIVES  OF  THE 

VESTIBULE  SCHOOL  OF  THE  HOOD  RUBBER 

COMPANY 

The  accompanying  extract  from  a  standard  practice  sheet  for 
operatives  in  the  making-room  of  the  Hood  Rubber  Company,  Water- 
town,  Massachusetts,  is  an  illustration  of  the  detailed  process 
descriptions  necessary  for  the  information  of  instructors.  Where 
time  studies  or  job  specifications  have  been  written,  some  data  will 
already  be  available  upon  which  standard  practice  can  be  based. 
In  any  case,  some  additional  investigation  will  be  necessary  in  order 
to  put  the  work  in  its  proper  teaching  form.  For  the  use  of  the 
instructor  a  check  list  of  the  operations  to  be  performed,  given  in 
the  sequence  in  which  they  are  to  be  taught,1  may  be  sufficient. 
After  the  pupil  has  been  given  some  preliminary  training,  the  check 
list  may  be  placed  in  his  hands  to  enable  him  to  check  his  movements 
or  to  determine  whether  the  process  is  being  carried  through  in  the 
right  order.  For  the  use  of  pupils,  standard  practice  sheets  may 
be  improved  by  being  illustrated  with  diagrams  or  photographs  so 
that  the  steps'  presented  may  be  clarified  for  those  who  do  not 
readily  follow  the  statement  of  the  printed  page. 

The  following  outline  gives  only  the  first  four  of  the  eleven 
operations  involved  in  the  making  processes  of  a  standard  rubber 
shoe. 

After  the  material  has  been  arranged  on  the  table,  the  worker  is 
instructed  to  proceed  as  follows: 

"i.  Place  right  hand  on  lower  right-hand  corner  of  pile  of  linings, 
picking  up  lower  right-hand  corner  of  top  lining  with  left  hand, 
carry  left  hand  to  left,  stripping  lining  one-half  off  and  fold;  place 
left  hand  at  top  of  pile  of  linings,  grasp  fold  of  lining  at  top  with 
right  hand,  stripping  off  by  pulling  up;  carry  right  hand  forward 
and  place  lining  on  table  with  fold  at  top  right. 

"2.  Place  left  hand  on  pile  of  rough  quarters  above  top  one; 
with  right  hand  pick  up  top  quarter,  forefinger  underneath  top  of 

376 


SCHOOL   OF   THE   HOOD   RUBBER   COMPANY         377 

quarter;  with  right  hand  carry  rough  quarter  to  lining  and  with 
left  hand  press  it  in  place  on  lining.  With  left  hand  pick  up 
lining  and  turn  over  from  right  to  left;  with  right  hand  fold  quarter 
over  and  with  left  hand  press  it  into  place  on  lining.  Pick  up  roll 
with  right  hand  and  roll  once  back  and  forward  returning  roll  to 
place  in  tool-box;  left  hand  meanwhile  holds  lining,  then  pick  it  up, 
and  with  the  aid  of  right  hand  spread  it  apart. 

"3.  With  right  (or  left)  hand  reach  for  and  bring  last  to  table, 
holding  lining  toe  up,  in  other  hand.  Last  is  laid,  toe  away,  and 
lining  drawn  over  with  one  hand  at  the  toe  and  the  other  at  the 
heel.  Rest  shoe  on  toe  of  last  and  draw  heel  of  lining  into  position 
with  both  hands.  Hold  toe  over  with  left  hand,  bottom  away,  last 
resting  on  back  of  heel. 

"4.  With  right  hand,  pick  up  insole  and  place  on  bottom  of  last. 
Hold  insole  in  place  with  last  two  fingers  of  right  hand  and  last 
left  side  of  lining  over  with  left  hand  following  up  with  first  fingers 
of  right  hand;  thus  to  shank.  Last  right  side  of  lining  in  similar 
manner.  Writh  right  hand  pick  up  roll  and  roll  once  around  from 
right  side  of  shank  around  toe  to  left  side  of  shank,  holding  shoe 
with  left  hand,  and  replace  roller.  Drop  toe  forward  and  with 
left  hand,  raise  heel;  with  right  hand  pick  up  gauge  and  confirm 
height  of  back,  then  return  gauge ;  carry  heel  forward  with  left  hand 
and  with  thumb  and  forefinger  of  each  hand  crease  insole  at  front 
edge  of  the  heel.  With  right  hand  last  over  right  side  of  heel, 
then  last  left  side  over  with  left  hand,  in  each  case  finishing  lasting 
of  shank.  With  right  hand  pick  up  roller,  pound  shank,  (once  on 
each  side)  and  roll  up  left  side  across  back  and  down  right  side  of 
heel.  Return  roller  with  right  hand  and  with  left  hand  lay  shoe 
on  side,  back  at  left,  and  bottom  away." 


APPENDIX  G 

EMPLOYEES'  ASSOCIATION  OF  THE  MORSE  DRY 
DOCK  AND  REPAIR  COMPANY 

The  Morse  Dry  Dock  and  Repair  Company  of  New  York  has 
introduced  an  employees'  association  (February,  1919)  under  circum- 
stances which  appear  to  meet  the  majority  of  the  standards  set  up 
in  Chapter  XVII.  The  company  employs  about  6,000  persons,  engaged 
in  the  usual  kinds  of  work  involved  in  repairing  both  steel  and 
wooden  vessels.  A  little  more  than  two  years  ago,  notices  were  sent 
out  by  the  company  and  posted  on  all  the  bulletin  boards  in  the 
yard,  to  the  effect  that  an  association  of  employees  would  be  formed 
and  calling  for  an  election  by  departments  of  directors  to  represent 
the  men.  For  the  purposes  of  this  election,  the  yard  was  divided 
into  ten  departments,  each  electing  one  director.  After  the  directors 
had  been  chosen,  a  mass  meeting  of  the  employees  was  held,  at 
which  the  association  was  formally  proposed  and  a  president,  vice- 
president,  secretary,  and  treasurer  were  elected  for  a  term  of  one 
year.  These  officers,  together  with  the  directors,  made  up  a  board  of 
directors  for  the  employees'  association. 

The  constitution  adopted  by  the  association  provides  that  the 
membership  shall  include  all  employees  of  the  company.  As  soon 
as  a  man  terminates  his  contract  with  the  company,  his  membership 
automatically  ceases,  but  it  is  renewed  as  soon  as  he  is  re-employed. 
The  dues  are  five  cents  per  week  for  each  member,  deducted  in 
advance  from  his  weekly  wage.  Provision  is  made  for  monthly 
mass  meetings  of  the  employees  comprising  the  association,  as  well 
as  for  monthly  conferences  of  the  board  of  directors,  and  of  special 
committees. 

The  special  committees,  appointed  by  the  board  of  directors,  have 
charge  of  several  important  matters.  The  relief  committee  estab- 
lishes and  maintains  a  fund  from  which  benefits  are  paid  to  members 
in  case  of  sickness  or  disability  and  to  their  dependents  in  case 
of  death.  The  relief  fund  is  maintained  by  dues  from  members 
of  the  association  who  wish  to  participate  in  the  plan.  The  accident 

378 


EMPLOYEES'  ASSOCIATION — MORSE  DRY  DOCK  co.    379 

prevention  committee  investigates  injuries  sustained  by  any  employee 
of  the  company  while  engaged  in  the  performance  of  his  duty  and 
co-operates  with  the  management  in  reducing  the  number  of  accidents. 
A  finance  committee  audits  all  bills,  the  entertainment  committee 
arranges  for  balls,  picnics,  and  athletic  games,  and  the  sanitation 
committee  investigates  complaints  from  the  several  departments  and 
co-operates  with  the  management  in  improving  conditions  within  the 
plant. 

A  plan  of  insurance  has  been  adopted  by  the  association  by 
which  an  outside  insurance  company  reinsures  all  employees  and 
their  doctor  handles  all  compensation  cases.  The  policy  covers 
accident,  sickness,  and  death  benefits.  The  association  pays  the 
salary  of  the  insurance  clerk  out  of  special  dues  paid  voluntarily 
for  this  specific  purpose  by  those  who  wish  to  receive  the  benefits 
of  the  plan. 

A  conference  board  has  been  chosen  for  each  department,  com- 
posed of  the  director  and  two  additional  members  elected  at  the 
same  time  and  for  the  same  period  as  the  departmental  director. 
In  case  the  employees  of  the  department  desire  some  change  in  the 
conditions  of  employment  which  affect  the  entire  group,  the  matter 
is  submitted  first  to  the  conference  board,  and  by  them  to  the 
"industrial  director"  appointed  by  the  company  to  handle  requests 
of  this  sort.  In  the  event  of  failure  to  adjust  the  request  within 
48  hours  after  it  has  been  received  by  the  industrial  director,  the 
request  is  referred  for  adjustment  to  a  joint  conference  board  com- 
posed of  three  members  of  the  department  concerned  and  three 
officers  appointed  by  the  company.  In  case  the  joint  conference  board 
cannot  adjust  the  dispute,  a  disinterested  person  is  selected  as  umpire. 
The  decision  of  the  board  or  the  umpire  is  final  and  binding  upon 
the  company  and  the  employees  of  the  department.  A  considerable 
number  of  minor  grievances  are  still  being  handled  by  the  employ- 
ment manager,  but  all  important  affairs  are  being  referred  to  the 
conference  board.  For  handling  certain  matters  of  this  kind,  the 
association  has  established  an  efficiency  department,  consisting  of 
three  elected  members  who  investigate  all  infringements  of  rules 
approved  by  the  membership.  The  three  members  who  comprise 
the  committee  sit  as  a  board  to  decide  all  matters  which  may  become 
a  cause  for  controversy. 

In  addition  to  the  opportunity  for  discussion  which  arises  from 
monthly  meetings  of  committees  and  directors,  the  company  provides 


APPENDIX 

for  regular  f oremen  s  meetings  to  discuss  the  usual  list  of  manage- 
ment problems.  These  meetings  are  attended  by  the  "snappers" 
or  gang  leaders,  as  well  as  by  the  .heads  of  departments.  All  of  this 
work  receives  constant  attention  from  the  employment  manager  and 
one  of  his  assistants.  The  insurance  clerk  has  his  desk  in  the 
employment  department,  the  employment  manager  attends  all  com- 
mittee meetings,  and  in  various  other  ways  keeps'  in  close  touch  with 
all  that  goes  on,  endeavoring  in  every  reasonable  way  to  further 
the  best  interests  of  the  association. 


APPENDIX  H 

WESTINGHOUSE  ELECTRIC  AND  MANUFACTUR- 
ING   COMPANY'S    CLASSIFICATION    AND    RATES 
FOR  EMPLOYEES 

STANDARD  OCCUPATIONS  AND  RATES  FOR 
WOMEN  OFFICE  EMPLOYEES 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO  DEPARTMENT  HEADS 

I 

CLASSIFICATION 

1.  This  book  contains  a  classification  of  the  occupations  used 

in  your  department. 

2.  This  classification   has  been  made  by  a  comparison  of  the 

same  occupations  in  all  departments. 

3.  The    following   descriptions   of   the   various   classes   give    a 

general  idea  of  what  each  class  covers. 

CLASS  A 

4.  Woman   performing   duties  of   a   higher   grade   than   those 

outlined  under  Class  B.  Each  Class  A  position  is  to  be 
approved  by  the  Occupation  and  Rate  Committee.  The 
classification  sheet  for  each  department  will  specifically 
state  what  Class  A  positions  have  been  authorized. 

CLASS  B 

5.  Woman  with  expert  skill  or   special  knowledge  which  can 

only   be   obtained   by   several   years'   experience. 

Examples:  Expert  stenographer  or  dictaphone  operator; 
typist  with  considerable  figuring  experience;  expert  calcu- 
lating machine  operator ;  checking  clerk,  familiar  with  freight 
classifications;  expert  manufacturing  information  writer; 
Hollerith  machine  operator;  special  bookkeeping  machine 
operator. 


APPENDIX 

6.  Woman   with   initiative,  judgment,   and   responsibility,   able 

to  handle  much  of  the  office  work  without  supervision; 
work  of  an  -analytical  quality.  Should  be  able  to  give 
information  and  handle  work  which  is  not  routine.  If  a 
stenographer,  able  to  handle  correspondence  with  outside 
parties  and  answer  some  letters  without  dictation.  One 
to  two  years  to  attain  reasonable  efficiency. 

Examples :  General  clerk  or  stenographer. 

CLASS  C 

7.  Woman  with  either  skill  or  special  knowledge  obtained  by 

previous  experience  or  training.  Work  is  mostly  routine, 
but  demands  some  initiative,  responsibility,  and  accuracy. 
Six  months  to  a  year  to  attain  reasonable  efficiency. 

Examples:  Stenographer  or  dictaphone  operator;  typist 
not  straight  copying;  calculating  machine  operator  on  adding 
and  listing  machines ;  inspecting  mail ;  writing  manufacturing 
information;  in  charge  of  files;  statement  clerk;  experience 
tracer;  telephone  operator. 

CLASS  D 

8.  Woman  who   in   short  time  can   become   efficient  on  work 

requiring  either  skill  or  knowledge  of  detail  which  is  of 
a  routine  character.  In  general,  the  type  of  employee 
that  can  be  promoted  to  a  higher  class.  Three  to  six 
months  to  attain  reasonable  efficiency. 

Examples:  Stenographer  beginning;  typist  on  straight 
copy-work;  pay-roll  clerk;  simple  calculating  machine  work; 
filing  original  data;  keeping  card  records;  production  diaries 
and  charts;  ordering  material  from  manufacturing  informa- 
tion; tracer;  timekeeper;  shipping  and  stock-order  reports; 
working  up  costs;  telephone  operator. 

CLASS  E 

9.  Woman   or   girl  beginner  with  no   previous   experience  or 

training ;  work  not  requiring  much  initiative,  accuracy,  or 
responsibility. 


EMPLOYEES'  RATINGS — WESTINGHOUSE  co.       383 

Examples:  Mail  clerk;  tube  operator;  filing  duplicate 
matter;  withdrawing  from  files;  assembling  for  files;  record- 
ing promises  and  orders;  duplicator  operator;  errand  girl; 
assistant  to  timekeeper. 

RANGE  OF  RATES 

10.  Positions  are  classified  according  to  the  training,  experience 

and  skill  necessary  to  do  the  work;  a  definite  range  of 
salary  being  applicable  to  each  class. 

11.  In  general,  the  lower  rate  listed   for  any  class  of  work  is 

to  be  taken  as  the  hiring  rate.  The  higher  rate  is  to  be 
used  only  for  the  most  experienced  in  the  class. 

12.  The   head  of  each   department   has   been    furnished  a  con- 

fidential "Key  Sheet"  which  gives  the  range  in  salary  for 
each  class.  The  rates  listed  on  the  "Key  Sheet"  are 
independent  of  any  special  bonus  which  may  be  authorized 
by  the  company. 

13.  In  •  very   exceptional   cases   it   may  be   advisable   to   pay  an 

individual  a  higher  rate  than  specified  for  her  class.  All 
such  increases  will  be  referred  to  the  acting  vice-president, 
for  approval. 

EMPLOYMENT 

14.  All  employment  of  women  for  office  positions  will  be  made 

through  the  women's  clerical  division  of  the  employment 
department.  A  notification  of  the  help  required  is  to  be 
sent  to  that  department  on  "Request  for  Help  Card." 

15.  After  an  applicant  has  been  accepted  by  the  head  of  the 

department  and  is  ready  to  report  for  work,  she  will  be 
conducted  to  the  department  making  the  request,  accom- 
panied by  card,  which  will  bear  the  signature  of  the 
employment  department.  This  card  is  then  to  be  signed 
by  the  head  of  the  department  and  forwarded  by  him  to 
the  salary  record  division. 

RE-RATES 

1 6.  The  employment  department  card  is  to  be  made  out  by  the 

department  in  which  the  individual  is  employed  and  after 
the  necessary  approvals  of  that  department  have  been 
obtained,  is  to  be  forwarded  (except  for  authorized  Class 


384  APPENDIX 

A  employees)  to  the  secretary  of  the  occupation  and  Rate 
Committee  for  checking  and  forwarding  to  the  salary  record 
division. 

17.  In   filling   out   a   "Re-Rate   Card"    for   a  person   who   is   in 

charge  of  other  employees  in  a  supervisory  capacity,  in- 
dicate the  standard  name  of  the  occupation  first,  followed 
by  the  words  "In  Charge."  The  next'  higher  classification 
may  be  allowed  for  one  who  is  in  charge. 

18.  Except  in  case  of  transfer,  all  re-rates  become  effective  as 

of  the  first  of  the  month. 

TRANSFERS 

19.  Whenever  possible   the   higher  class  occupations,   requiring 

skill,  experience,  or  special  ability  should  be  filled  by 
promotion  or  transfer,  even  though  it  may  be  necessary  to 
transfer  an  employee  from  another  department. 

20.  When   an   employee   desires   a   transfer,   she   will   take   the 

matter  up  with  the  party  in  charge  of  her  work.  If  the 
matter  cannot  be  adjusted  or  arranged  by  transferring 
the  employee  to  another  position  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  head  of  the  department  in  which  she  is  working, 
the  women's  clerical  division  of  the  employment  depart- 
ment should  be  notified  by  means  of  "Report  on  Employee" 
,  furnished  in  duplicate.  In  case  the  matter  is  adjusted 
so  that  the  employee  no  longer  desires  a  transfer,  the  report 
will  be  returned  by  the  employment  department  with  a 
notation  to  the  effect  that  the  request  for  transfer  is  can- 
celled. 

21.  When  one  department  wishes  to  obtain  the  transfer  of  an 

employee  from  another  department,  the  matter  is  to  be 
taken  up  with  the  head  of  the  latter  department  and  with 
the  women's  clerical  division  of  the  employment  depart- 
ment before  the  employee  is  in  any  way  approached. 

22.  When  a  transfer  has  been  arranged,  the  women's  clerical 

division,  employment  department,  will  make  out  the  neces- 
sary transfer  cards  and  forward  them  to  the  departments 
concerned.  Each  department  will  forward  the  card  it 
receives,  bearing  the  necessary  signature,  to  the  salary 
record  division,  accounting  department. 

23.  Transfers  must  be  arranged  so  as  to  be  effective  as  of  the 

ist  or  i6th  of  the  month. 


APPENDIX  I 

APPRENTICESHIP  INDENTURE  PREPARED  BY 
THE  INDUSTRIAL  COMMISSION  OF  WISCONSIN 

THIS  INDENTURE,  Made   in  triplicate  this day 

of ,  19. .,  between , 

hereafter  called  the  first  party,  and , 

a  minor,  born ,  of , 

(date  of  birth)  (Street  and  number) 

Wisconsin,  and ,  hereafter 

(Name  of  parent  or  guardian) 
called  the  second  parties; 

WITNESSETH,  That  the  first  party  agrees  to  take  the  said  minor 
into  its  employ  and  service  as  an  apprentice  to  teach  him  the  trade 
of as  per  Exhibit  A. 

That  the  second  parties  agree  that  the  said  minor  shall  diligently 
and  faithfully  work  for  and  serve  the  said  first  party  during  the 
full  term  of  apprenticeship. 

The  apprenticeship  shall  begin  on  the day  of 

.,  19. .,  and  shall  be  for  a  period  of 

years.  The  length  of  year,  the  compensation  for  the  term  of  appren- 
ticeship, and  the  processes,  methods,  or  plans  to  be  taught  shall  be 
as  per  Exhibit  A. 

It  is  mutually  agreed  that  until  the  minor's  eighteenth  birthday 
the  total  number  of  hours'  work  in  any  one  week  shall  not  exceed 
fifty-five  (55),  and  that  at  least  five  (5)  of  such  hours  or  its  equiva- 
lent1 shall  be  devoted  by  said  minor  to  school  instruction. 

(This  clause  shall  not  be  construed  to  prevent  school  instruction 
after  the  minor's  eighteenth  birthday  if  both  parties  agree  to  the 
continuation  of  the  same.) 

Any  indenture  may  be  annulled  by  the  Industrial  Commission 
of  Wisconsin  upon  application  of  either  party  and  good  cause  shown. 


1  To  meet   the   peculiar   requirements   of  certain  trades   special   arrangements  for 
schooling  may  be  made  through  the  Industrial  Commission  of  Wisconsin. 

385 


386  APPENDIX 

At   the   completion   of   the   apprenticeship   the   said   minor   shall 
receive  a  certificate  stating  the  terms  of  his  indenture. 

'*.'."          <* 
IN   WITNESS  WHEREOF,  The  parties  have  caused  this  indenture 

to  be  signed  as  required  by  Chapter  133  of  the  laws  of  Wisconsin, 


........................  (seal)  .........  V  .................. 

(Apprentice)  (Name  of  firm  or  corp.) 

.....  ...................  By  ............................ 

(Parent  or  guardian)      (seal) 

EXHIBIT  A 

Notice:  No  apprenticeship  indenture  will  be  legal  which  does 
not  have  this  exhibit  filled  out  as  indicated  below.  (Ch.  133,  Laws 
of  Wisconsin,  1915.) 

Extent  of  period  of  apprenticeship.     (Here  must  be  stated  the  length 
of  time  to  be  served,  and,  wherever  the  trade  can  determine,  the 
exact  length  of  each  apprenticeship  year.)  ......................... 

Schedule   of   processes   to   be   worked.      (Here   must  be   stated   the 
processes,  methods  or  plans  to  be  taught  and  the  approximate  time 
to  be  spent  at  each  process,   method  or  plan  —  to   conform   to   the 
character  of  the  individual  trade.)  ................................ 

Compensation  to  be  paid.     The  apprentice  shall  receive  in  wages: 

Special  provisions.     (These  to  be  stated  here  or  on  the  following 
page.)    ...............................  .......................... 


APPENDIX  J 

COLLECTIVE  AGREEMENTS  BETWEEN  EMPLOY- 
ERS   AND    LABOR    ORGANIZATIONS    FOR    THE 
REGULATION    OF   APPRENTICESHIP   IN    MASSA- 
CHUSETTS1 

I.  SCALE  AND  AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  BOSTON  DAILY  NEWS- 
PAPERS AND  TYPOGRAPHICAL  UNION  No.  13 

In  effect  November  16,  1916 

APPRENTICES 

Section  21.    Apprentices  may  be  employed  subject  to  the  following 
regulations : 

1.  One  apprentice  to  every  fifteen    (15)   journeymen,  or  major 
fraction  thereof  regularly  employed;   the  number  of  apprentices  in 
any  office  not  to  exceed  four   (4),  except  that  when  an  apprentice 
enters  his  fifth  year  the  office  may  employ  another  apprentice,  and 
except  that  the  Joint  Apprentice  Committee  shall  have  the  power 
to    arrange   so    that    each    office    having   the   maximum   number   of 
apprentices  shall  have  at  all  times  at  least  one  apprentice  in  each 
year  of  service. 

2.  Apprentices  shall  not  be  less  than  sixteen  years  of  age  at  the 
beginning  of   their  apprenticeship,   and  shall   serve   a  term   of   five 
years.    The  term  of  five  years  may  be  extended  by  the  Joint  Appren- 
tice Committee  when  in  its  judgment  conditions  warrant  an  extension. 
All  apprentices  must  be  enrolled  by  Boston  Typographical  Union  No. 
13  and  the  International  Typographical  Union. 

3.  During   the    first   two   years   an    apprentice   may  be    required 
to  perform  general  work  in  the  composing  room  at  the  discretion 
of  the  foreman.    During  the  third,  fourth  and  fifth  year  an  apprentice 


1  Labor  Bulletin  No.  121,  State  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Boston,  Mass. 

387 


388  APPENDIX 

must  be  given  instruction  and  devote  all  his  time  to  acquiring  knowl- 
edge of  all  the  intricate  work  of  the  trade. 

4.  During  the  third  and  fourth^ear  apprentices  must  be  employed 
in  the   ad-room   at  the   general   work  of  that   department.      During 
the  first  three  months  of  the  fifth  year  they  must  be  employed  on 
the   make-up.     During   the  second  three  months   of   the   fifth  year 
they  must  be  employed  in  the  proofroom  at  the  general  work  of  that 
department.     During  the  last  six  months  of  the  last  year  of  appren- 
ticeship the  apprentice  shall  be  permitted  to  learn  the  operation  of 
type-setting  and  type-casting  machines,  and  must  be  given  opportunity 
to  acquire  knowledge  of  all  classes  of  work  on  such  machines. 

5.  When  lumpers  or  office  boys  are  needed  in  a  composing  room, 
those  employed  shall  be  classified  as  such.     Lumpers  or  office  boys 
shall  not  be  eligible  to  an  apprenticeship  unless  they  have  qualified 
before   the   Joint   Apprentice    Committee.     Lumpers   or   office   boys 
shall  not  be  permitted  to  set  or  distribute  type,  make  up  or  break 
up  type  matter  or  forms,  lead  or  unlead  matter,  correct  proofs,  lock 
or   unlock    forms,    operate   machines,    or   distribute    leads,    slugs   or 
rules;  but  lumpers  or  office  boys  may  handle  leads,  slugs,  or  rules 
by  taking  them  from  casting  machines,  or  any  original  source,  and 
placing  them  in  general  sort  racks,  said  racks  to  be  located  at  the 
convenience  of  the  office. 

6.  The  minimum  scale  of  wages  to  be  paid  apprentices  for  the 
years  stated  shall  be: 

Day  Work 

Third  Year  $15.00  per  week 

Fourth  Year  18.00  per  week 

Fifth  Year 21.00  per  week 

Night  Work 

Third  Year  16.00  per  week 

Fourth  Year  19.00  per  week 

Fifth  Year 22.00  per  week 

7.  In  no  instance  shall  an  apprentice  be  allowed  to  work  overtime. 

8.  At  the  completion  of  the  second  year  of  their  apprenticeship 
all  apprentices,  if  competent,  must  be  admitted  as  apprentice  members 
of  the  union,  and  shall  be  protected  against  unfair  discrimination 


COLLECTIVE   AGREEMENTS  389 

and  discharge,  the  same  as  if  they  were  journeymen.  All  contested 
discharge  and  discrimination  cases  covering  apprentices  beginning 
with  the  third  year  of  their  apprenticeship  shall  be  settled  under 
the  terms  provided  in  Section  19  of  the  agreement  between  the 
Boston  Daily  Papers  and  Typographical  Union  No.  13. 

9.  Beginning  with  the  third  year  of  apprenticeship  the  Secretary 
of  Boston  Typographical  Union  No.  13  shall  grant  the  apprentice 
a  card  indorsed  for  each  year's  service. 

JOINT  APPRENTICE  COMMITTEE 

A  Joint  Apprentice  Committee,  composed  of  two  representatives 
of  the  Boston  Daily  Newspapers  and  two  members  of  Boston  Typo- 
graphical Union  No.  13  shall  be  formed. 

This  committee  shall  see  to  it  that  all  apprentices  before  being 
enrolled,  possess  a  grammar  school  education  or  its  equivalent  and 
are  able  to  read  manuscript  intelligently. 

The  committee  shall  devise  ways  and  means  for  the  further  educa- 
tion of  the  apprentice  by  continuation  study. 

The  committee  shall  require  that  apprentices,  beginning  with 
the  last  eighteen  (18)  months  of  their  apprenticeship,  complete  the 
International  Typographical  Union  Course  of  Instruction  in  Printing. 
Beginning  with  the  first  week  of  the  third  year  every  apprentice 
shall  pay  to  the  secretary  of  the  union  the  sum  of  fifty  (50)  cents 
a  week  for  a  period  of  fifty  (50)  weeks  for  the  purpose  of  paying 
for  the  International  Typographical  Union  Course  in  Printing. 

Apprentices  working  days  shall  spend  at  least  one  evening  a  week, 
and  apprentices  working  nights  at  least  one  afternoon  a  week  in 
academic  and  mechanical  instruction,  at  a  school  to  be  agreed  upon 
by  the  Joint  Apprentice  Committee. 

The  committee  may  require  the  apprentice  to  take  a  reasonable 
amount  of  home  study  so  as  to  prepare  himself  for  examination  at 
the  end  of  each  period  of  his  apprenticeship. 

Apprentices  shall  be  required  to  appear  before  the  Joint  Com- 
mittee at  the  end  of  each  period  in  order  to  qualify  for  increased 
wages  and  further  advancement,  as  provided  in  the  agreement. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  employer  to  see  that  proper  instruction, 
in  accordance  with  the  recommendation  of  the  Joint  Apprentice 
Committee,  is  given  to  all  apprentices  whom  he  may  employ. 

It  shall  also  be  the  duty  of  the  foreman  and  journeymen  to  teach 


39°  APPENDIX 

apprentices  the  printing  business,  and  the  duty  of  the  Joint  Appren- 
tice Committee  to  see  that  this  is  done.  An  apprentice  may  appeal 
to  the  Joint  Apprentice-  Committeje  if  he  deems  an  injustice  is  done 
him. 

The  committee  shall  have  full  power  and  authority  any  time 
during  the  term  of  apprenticeship  to  cancel  the  apprenticeship  of 
an  apprentice  who  does  not  show  aptitude  and  proper  qualifications 
for  the  work.  Apprentices  cannot  leave  the  office  of  one  employer 
and  accept  work  in  the  office  of  another  employer  without  the  written 
consent  of  the  Joint  Apprentice  Committee. 

I NTERPRET  ATION 

Section  22.  Any  question  regarding  the  interpretation  of  any 
section  under  this  scale  shall  be  referred  for  settlement  to  a  joint 
committee  of  publishers  and  union,  it  being  the  intent  of  this  section 
that  each  section  of  the  scale  shall  be  interpreted  alike  in  all  offices. 

II.  AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  ELECTRICAL  CONTRACTORS  AND 
LOCAL  No.  96,  INTERNATIONAL  BROTHERHOOD  OF 
ELECTRICAL  WORKERS,  OF  WORCESTER  AND  VICINITY, 
MAY  i,  1916  TO  MAY  i,  1919 

ARTICLE  V 

Section  i.  The  party  of  the  second  part  shall  be  composed  of 
journeymen,  helpers,  and  apprentices. 

A  journeyman,  one  who  has  worked  at  the  trade  four  years  and 
has  passed  a  journeyman's  examination  and  been  admitted  to  the 
union. 

A  helper,  one  who  has  worked  at  the  trade  two  years  and  has 
passed  a  helper's  examination  and  has  been  admitted  to  the  union. 

Apprentices  shall  be  divided  into  two  (2)  classes,  first-  and  second- 
year  apprentices: 

A  first-year  apprentice,  one  who  is  registered  with  the  union, 
paying  the  regular  registration  fee,  and  to  be  employed  in  the  shop 
or  as  a  locker  boy  on  job. 

A  second-year  apprentice,  one  who  has  served  one  year  at  the 
trade  in  the  shop  and  who  has  passed  an  apprentice's  examination 
and  been  admitted  to  the  union. 


COLLECTIVE   AGREEMENTS  391 

Section  2.  The  party  of  the  first  part  agrees  to  employ  not 
more  than  one  helper  to  each  journeyman  on  any  job,  and  not  more 
than  one  second-year  apprentice  on  any  job,  except  when  four  or 
more  journeymen  are  employed  on  said  job,  then  two  second-year 
apprentices  may  be  employed. 

Section  3.  Each  shop  may  employ  one  apprentice  to  every  three 
journeymen  in  their  employ,  and  no  helpers  or  apprentices  shall  be 
allowed  on  any  job  without  a  journeyman;  except,  when  the  journey- 
man is  temporarily  called  away,  then  said  helper  or  apprentice  may 
remain  the  balance  of  the  current  day. 


III.  AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  LOCAL  No.  257,  BROTHERHOOD 
OF  PAINTERS,  DECORATORS,  AND  PAPERHANGERS  OF 
AMERICA,  OF  SPRINGFIELD,  AND  EMPLOYERS 

In  effect  May  i,  1916 

ARTICLE  III — APPRENTICES 

Section  I.  Any  person  engaging  to  learn  the  trade  of  painter, 
paperhanger  or  decorator,  must  be  a  male  over  the  age  of  sixteen 
years  and  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  at  the  time  he  registers 
as  such  apprentice,  unless  special  dispensation  is  granted  by  said 
local  union.  He  shall  be  required  to  serve  a  regular  apprenticeship 
of  at  least  three  consecutive  years. 

Section  2.  Any  employer  taking  an  apprentice  shall  agree  to 
employ  him  in  learning  such  trades  for  xwelve  months  in  each  year. 
Such  employer  shall  be  entitled  to  thirty  days'  trial  upon  employing 
such  apprentice  at  the  expiration  of  which  period  if  such  apprentice 
shall  have  proved  himself  satisfactory  to  such  employer,  he  shall  be 
properly  indentured  by  said  local  union.  If  such  apprentice  shall 
not  have  proved  satisfactory  to  said  employer,  he  shall  not  be  required 
to  keep  him,  but  will  be  required  to  pay  him  at  the  rate  of  six 
dollars  per  week  for  the  time  which  he  has  worked.  No  such 
apprentice  shall  be  allowed  a  trial  with  more  than  two  contractors, 
and  no  contractor  shall  be  allowed  to  try  more  than  two  such  appren- 
tices consecutively. 

Section  3.  Wages  of  apprentices  from  the  date  of  registration 
shall  be  as  follows: 


392  APPENDIX 

$6  per  week  for  the  first  year. 

$9  per  week  for  the  first  six  months  of  the  second  year. 

$11  per  week  for  the  second  six  months  of  the  second  year. 

$15  per  week  for  the  first  sfx  months  of  the  third  year. 

$18  per  week  for  the  second  six  months  of  the  third  year. 
After  the  first  year  the  apprentice  shall  appear  before  an  ex- 
amining board  which  shall  consist  of  an  equal  number  of  members 
of  said  local  union  and  employers,  one  of  which  shall  be  said 
apprentice's  employer,  and  shall  be  examined  as  to  his  ability  to 
perform  the  work  for  which  he  is  apprenticed  for  the  time  served. 
Such  examinations  shall  be  held  every  six  months.  An  apprentice 
failing  to  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  shall  be  compelled  to 
serve  for  the  following  six  months  at  the  same  rate  of  wages. 

Section  4.  Apprentices  shall  not  be  allowed  to  work  more  than 
nine  hours  per  day  when  working  in  the  shop  and  no  apprentices 
shall  be  allowed  to  work  on  any  job  away  from  the  shop  more  than 
eight  hours  on  any  Monday,  Tuesday,  Wednesday,  Thursday,  or  Fri- 
day, or  four  hours  on  any  Saturday.  Apprentices  registered  in  any  shop 
shall  be  allowed  to  work  in  that  shop  and  in  none  other,  except 
by  mutual  agreement  of  such  apprentice's  employer  and  proposed 
employer  and  the  Local  Union.  No  apprentice  shall  be  permitted  to 
work  on  Sundays  except  for  double  pay,  or  on  any  job  unless  his 
employer  shall  at  the  same  time  be  employing  at  least  two  journeymen 
on  that  job  or  on  other  jobs. 


APPENDIX  K 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS  AND 
TRAINING  METHODS 

In  the  classification  which  follows,  no  detailed  definitions  have 
been  attempted,  because  practices  in  different  schools  and  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  differ  too  widely  to  allow  fine  distinctions  to 
be  made.  Particulars  regarding  the  examples  cited  can  be  secured 
from  the  literature  listed  in  the  bibliography  or  from  the  courses 
of  study  issued  by  the  schools  mentioned.  Bulletin  No.  17  of  the 
Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  gives  a  detailed  statement 
of  the  kinds  of  classes  which  may  receive  support  from  federal 
funds. 

I.  Public  Schools 

1.  Manual  training  and  technical  high  schools  (see  Chapter  VI). 

2.  Trade  Schools. 

Institutions  designed  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  the 
practice  and  theory  of  one  or  more  trades.  The  instruction 
given  each  student  is  confined  to  the  trade  which  he  elects 
to  follow. 

(a)  All-day  unit  trade  schools  or  classes  are  for  persons 

over  14  years  of  age  who  wish  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  some  specific  trade.  All  of  the  related 
academic  work  as  well  as  the  shop  experience  is 
based  upon  the  work  which  the  student  elects  to 
undertake.  Examples:  Manhattan  Girls'  Trade 
School,  New  York  City;  Trade  School  for  Boys, 
Boston,  Massachusetts;  Lowell  Textile  School, 
Lowell,  Massachusetts ;  The  Public  School  of  Trades 
for  Boys,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin;  State  Trade 
School,  Bridgeport,  Connecticut. 

(b)  Part-time    schools    and   classes    may   be    either    trade 

extension  or  trade  preparatory. 

(i)  In  the  first  case  the  employee  is  given  instruc- 

393 


394  APPENDIX 

tion  to  supplement  the  experience  gained  in 
the  shop,  the  purpose  being  to  acquire  skill 
pr  knowledge  immediately  applicable  to  the 
work  in  wliich  he  is  engaged. 

(2)  Trade  preparatory  schools  or  classes  give  in- 
struction designed  to  prepare  an  employee 
for  promotion  or  for  entrance  upon  an  en- 
tirely different  line  of  work. 

In  either  case,  the  classes  are  held  during  the  regular 
working  hours.     They  may  be  supported  entirely  at  public 
expense,  or  as  a  co-operative  undertaking  with  the  em- 
ployers concerned.     Examples:  Beverly  Industrial  School, 
Beverly,  Massachusetts;   Co-operative  High   School,   Day- 
ton, Ohio;  Rochester  Shop  School,  Rochester,  New  York. 
(c)  Evening  trade  schools  are  intended  either  to  perfect 
the   person   already  in   a  trade  or  to  prepare   for 
promotion  or  a  change  of  occupation.     Federal  aid 
is  given  only  for  work  of  the  first  type.    Examples: 
Independent   evening   industrial    schools   established 
by  the  State  Board  of  Education  in  many  cities  in 
Massachusetts;    New   York   Evening   High    School 
for  Women,  New  York  City;  Evening  courses  of 
the  McKinley  Manual  Training  School,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 
3.  Day  and  evening  Continuation  Schools 

Several  states  require  employed  minors  under  specified 
ages  to  attend  school  several  hours  each  week.  The  classes 
may  be  held  either  in  a  building  supplied  by  the  school 
or  at  the  place  of  employment.  Both  academic  and  prac- 
tical instruction  are  offered,  although  the  former  usually 
predominates  because  of  the  small  amount  of  time  avail- 
able. 
4.  Prevocational  Schools 

A  type  of  school  originally  intended  to  assist  retarded 
children  to  choose  their  occupations  and  prepare  for  more 
specific  trade  training  or  entrance  to  manual  training,  com- 
mercial, or  mechanic  arts  high  schools.  The  tendency  has 
been  toward  making  them  trade  schools  for  backward 
children.  They  are  now  being  largely  superseded  by  junior 
or  intermediate  high  schools.  For  examples,  see  "Prevoca- 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   INDUSTRIAL   SCHOOLS          395 

tional   Education   in  the   Public   Schools,"  by   Leavitt  and 
Brown. 

5.  Intermediate  Industrial  Schools 

These  schools  differ  from  the  prevocational  school  in 
not  keeping  open  the  road  to  later  high  school  entrance. 
They  offer  courses  combining  shop  and  academic  work 
from  one  to  four  years  in  length  for  boys  and  girls  who 
wish  to  enter  at  once  upon  industrial  life  but  who  are 
either  not  old  enough  to  enroll  in  technical  or  trade  schools 
or  wish  more  academic  work  than  the  trade  school  offers. 
There  is  little  demand  for  them  save  "where  traditional 
education  is  most  strongly  entrenched  and  blindly  unyield- 
ing to  the  needs  of  the  majority  of  school  children."1 
The  development  of  junior  high  schools  and  more  practical 
high  school  courses  has  practically  stopped  their  further 
establishment.  Examples:  Rochester  Shop  School,  Roches- 
ter, New  York;  Newton  Independent  Industrial  School, 
Newton,  Massachusetts. 

6.  General  Industrial  Schools 

As  established  under  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational 
Education,  these  schools  or  classes  are  intended  to  fit 
persons  for  employment  in  the  trades,  who  live  in  towns 
of  less  than  25,000  population  where  the  number  in  any 
one  trade  group  is  not  large  enough  to  warrant  a  unit 
course.  Students  from  a  closely  related  group  of  trades 
are  given  instruction  intended  to  assist  all  of  them.  Thus 
a  building  trades  group  may  attend  classes  in  mathematics, 
estimating,  elementary  structural  and  architectural  draw- 
ing, building  ordinances,  and  may  do  school  shop  work  in 
concrete  construction,  bricklaying,  carpentry,  and  plumbing. 

7.  Higher  Technical  Institutions 

Chemists,  mechanical  engineers,  draftsmen,  electrical 
engineers,  and  other  technical  experts  are  trained  in  the 
departments  of  science,  engineering,  and  applied  design  in 
various  state  universities.  To  a  more  limited  extent,  the 
general  college  courses  supply  men  who  become  executives 
or  staff  experts  after  a  brief  period  of  apprenticeship. 

8.  Schools  of  Commerce  and  Business  Administration 

State  universities,  as  for  example  in  California,  Iowa, 


1  Leavitt,    Frank    M.,   "Examples   of  Industrial   Education,"   page    129. 


396  APPENDIX 

Wisconsin,  and  Kansas,  offer  special  courses  in  the  plan- 
ning,  accounting,   and   executive   phases   of   industrial   ad- 
ministration. "  ^ 
9.  Americanization 

Classes  for  teaching  citizenship,  American  ideals,  and 
English  to  persons  of  foreign  birth  or  foreign  parentage 
are  usually  organized  in  connection  with  public  evening 
schools.  Although  the  general  educational  value  of  this 
work  predominates  in  the  aims  of  the  majority  of  the 
educators  who  direct  it,  industry  nevertheless  enjoys  a 
direct  benefit  from  it  because  of  the  increased  efficiency  of 
English-speaking  employees. 
IO.  Correspondence  Schools 

Correspondence  courses  meet  the  need  of  the  large 
number  of  ambitious  persons  engaged  in  industrial  pursuits 
who  cannot  enjoy  the  privileges  of  other  types  of  educa- 
tion. Several  state  universities  and  a  few  state  boards 
of  education  offer  courses  which  provide  theoretical  in- 
struction to  supplement  the  experience  gained  in  the  shop 
or  factory.  '. 

In  addition  to  technical  trade  courses,  correspondence 
instruction  is  now  available  in  factory  management,  office 
methods,  accounting,  safety,  plant  sanitation,  and  labor 
problems.  Traveling  instructors  who  meet  groups  of 
students  for  occasional  conferences  and  lectures  have  added 
greatly  to  the  efficiency  of  this  method. 

II.  Private,  Philanthropic,  and  Endowed  Schools 

Nearly  all  of  the  types  of  public  schools  mentioned  above 
are  paralleled  by  similar  schools  of  a  private  or  philanthropic 
nature. 

1.  Manual  training  and  technical  high  schools 

Examples:  Wilmerding  School  of  Industrial  Arts,  San 
Francisco,  California;  Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial 
Institute,  Tuskegee,  Alabama. 

2.  Trade  Schools 

Examples:  Williamson  Free  School  of  Mechanical  Trades, 
Delaware  County,  Pennsylvania;  David  Rankin,  Jr., 
School  of  Mechanical  Trades,  St.  Louis,  Missouri; 
Girls'  Trade  School,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   INDUSTRIAL   SCHOOLS  397 

3.  Higher  Technical  Institutions 

(a)  Between    high    school   and   college:    Wentworth    In- 

stitute, Boston,  Massachusetts;  Carnegie  School  of 
Applied  Industries,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania; 
Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 

(b)  Of  college  or  university  rank:  Massachusetts  Institute 

of  Technology,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts;  Armour 
Institute  of  Technology,  Chicago,  Illinois ;  Carnegie 
Institute  of  Technology,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania. 

4.  Schools  of  Commerce  and  Business  Administration 

Examples :  Girard  College,  Philadelphia/  Pennsylvania ; 
New  York  University ;  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Commercial  Schools ; 
Graduate  School  of  Business  Administration  of  Harvard 
University. 

5.  Correspondence  Schools 

International    Correspondence    Schools,    Scranton,    Penn- 
sylvania; American  School  of  Correspondence,  Chicago, 
Illinois. 
III.  Trade  Union  Schools 

The  chief  aim  of  these  schools  has  been  to  provide  sup- 
plementary technical  education  and  a  broader  experience  for 
trade  apprentices.  Three  types  of  organizations  have  ap- 
peared : 

1.  Correspondence  Courses 

The  International  Typographical  Union  gives  a  typical 
correspondence  course  in  the  principles  of  printing.  The 
work  is  carried  on  under  the  auspices  of  the  Inland 
Printer  Technical  School  of  Chicago. 

2.  Co-operative  Trade  Schools 

A  trade  school  may  be  established  and  maintained  by 
the  membership  of  the  union  as  a  co-operative  enterprise. 
Thus  a  school  was  established  in  September,  1909,  by 
the  wood-workers'  branch  of  the  Carriage,  Wagon,  and 
Automobile  Workers'  Union  of  New  York.  Sessions 
are  held  on  Sunday  mornings  and  in  the  evenings  during 
the  week,  the  course  comprising  three  years  of  26  weeks 
each  year.  Tuition  fees  are  charged  to  cover  expenses. 

3.  Trade   Schools  under  Joint  Arbitration  Boards  or  Under 

Co-operative  Agreements 

(a)   In   1907,  by  agreement  between  the  school  authori- 


398  APPENDIX 

ties  and  the  arbitration  board  of  the  employing 
carpenters  and  the  carpenters'  unions  of  Chicago, 
classes  for  apprentices  were  opened  in  two  public 
schools,  the  Central  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  The  Lewis  Institute,  the  Pullman 
Evening  School,  and  the  Chicago  Technical  Col- 
lege. Contractors  taking  apprentices  agreed  to 
employ  them  for  nine  consecutive  months  each 
year  and  see  that  they  attended  school  during  the 
remaining  three  months,  January,  February,  and 
'  March. 

(b)  The  school  of  the  United  Typothetae  on  the  Arsenal 
Technical  Grounds  in  Indianapolis  is  administered 
jointly  by  the  United  Typothetae  and  the  Franklin 
clubs  of  America,  with  the  approval  and  co-opera- 
tion of  the  local  authorities  and  the  International 
Typographical  Union. 

IV.  Methods  of  Training  Used  by  the  Industries 

The  term  "corporation  school"  has  occasionally  been  ap- 
plied to  all  of  the  formal  means  of  instruction  listed  below. 
The  aims  of  the  National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools 
as  set  forth  in  its  constitution  are:  "first,  to  develop  the 
individual  employee  to  his  highest  efficiency;  second,  to  in- 
crease the  efficiency  of  industry ;  and  third,  to  influence  courses 
in  established  educational  institutions  more  favorably  toward 
industry." 

Following  the  terminology  used  by  this  association,  a  cor- 
poration school  may  be  defined  as  "any  school  maintained  by 
a  business  concern,  quite  independent  of  outside  control,  for 
the  purpose  of  fitting  its  new  employees  for  efficient  service, 
or  for  the  further  training  of  its  older  employees  to  fit  them 
for  positions  of  greater  responsibility,  as  foremen,  executives, 
or  technical  experts."  2 

School?  for  advertising,  selling,  distribution,  and  retail 
salesmanship,  so  far  as  they  are  connected  with  the  industries, 
are  included  in  this  outline  under  "Special  Classes"  or  "General 
Corporation  Schools." 


3  Beatty,  Albert  James,    "Corporation   Schools,"   page  43. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   INDUSTRIAL   SCHOOLS  399 

1.  Instruction  by  Skilled  Employees 

The  new  employee  is  placed  under  the  special  care 
of  a  skilled  worker  who  gives  him  only  incidental  or  occa- 
sional attention. 

2.  Instruction  by  Foremen 

The  foremen  are  held  responsible  for  initiating  all 
recruits.  Where  the  operations  are  relatively  simple,  the 
labor  turnover  small,  and  the  foreman  has  only  a  few 
persons  under  his  charge,  this  is  still  an  economical  plan. 

3.  Shop  Instructors 

Special  instructors  are  placed  in  each  department  who 
give  part  or  all  of  their  time  to  training  new  employees. 
Certain  benches  or  machines  may  be  set  aside  for  the  use 
of  learners.  In  some  cases,  inspection  and  instruction 
are  combined,  each  inspector  having  charge  of  a  small 
number  of  employees  whom  he  assists  and  instructs. 

4.  Threshold  or  Vestibule  School  (Full-time) 

Before  the  new  employee  enters  the  factory  proper 
he  receives  a  preliminary  course  of  intensive  training  in 
a  separate  room  or  section,  working  on  standard  machines 
and  producing  commercial  products,  but  under  the 
guidance  of  special  instructors.  (See  Chapter  X.)  The 
training  may  be  supplemented  by  instruction  in  blue-print 
reading,  shop  discipline,  safety,  company  policies,  and 
general  information  on  materials,  machinery,  and  methods. 

5.  Threshold  or  Vestibule  School  (Part-time) 

Instruction  is  given  in  a  separate  training  department 
following  the  general  procedure  outlined  above,  but  on 
a  part-time  basis  and  intended  to  give  assistance  to  semi- 
skilled employees  in  the  work  they  are  doing,  or  to  prepare 
them  for  a  higher  grade  of  work. 

6.  Apprenticeship 

(a)  The  apprentice  agrees  to  work  for  a  period  of  three 
to  seven  years  at  reduced  wages.  In  return  he  is 
allowed  to  spend  some  time  in  all  of  the  several 
divisions  and  grades  of  work  represented  by  his 
trade.  There  is  no  formal  instruction  in  methods 
or  principles,  the  success  of  the  plan  being  de- 
pendent entirely  upon  the  initiative  of  the  appren- 
tice and  the  willingness  of  foremen  and  workmen 
to  assist  him. 


400  APPENDIX 

(b)  The  arrangement  is  similar  to  that  outlined  above 
except  that  the  agreement  includes  opportunity  for 
technical  education  outside  of  the  plant.  R.  Hoe 
and  Company  of  New  York  have  their  own  school 
which  is  attended  by  apprentices  three  nights  each 
week  for  nine  months  each,year.  By  attending 
the  North  End  Union  Printing  School  for  one 
year,  printing  apprentices  in  Boston  may  reduce 
their  term  of  service  from  five  years  to  four  years, 
at  the  same  time  increasing  their  rate  of  pay  suf- 
ficiently to  more  than  make  up  for  the  year  spent 
without  wages. 

7.  Apprentice  Schools 

The  usual  diversified  shop  experience  of  the  apprentice 
is  supplemented  by  classroom  and  laboratory  study  of 
related  academic  and  technical  subjects,  the  instruction 
"being  given  during  the  day  on  the  company's  time.  A 
part  of  the  shopwork  may  be  given  in  a  separate  room 
or  division  similar  to  that  used  in  the  vestibule  school. 
The  period  of  apprenticeship  may  be 'shortened  to  accom- 
modate the  needs  of  students  with  college  or  technical 
school  training.  (See  Chapter  IX.) 

8.  The  "Flying  Squadron"  Plan 

This  is  essentially  an  intensified,  shortened  apprentice- 
ship. Groups  of  students  are  allowed  to  work  for  brief 
periods  in  each  of  a  number  of  manufacturing  or  office 
departments.  This  experience  is  usually  supplemented  by 
lectures  and  other  classroom  exercises.  (See  page  198.) 
The  term  "special  training  school"  has  been  applied  to 
a  variation  of  this  method  adapted  especially  to  training 
college  graduates  or  other  technical  men.  Plans  vary 
from  the  course  requiring  all  of  the  student's  time  in 
study,  investigation,  or  inspection  trips,  to  the  course 
where  the  student's  time  is  almost  wholly  productive,  little 
or  no  time  being  allotted  by  the  company  for  class  or 
individual  instruction  in  related  subjects. 

9.  General  Corporation  Schools 

Courses  of  study  are  offered  for  employees  in  the 
financial,  administrative,  and  production  departments.  No 
formal  apprentice  agreement  is  required,  although  a  bonus 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   INDUSTRIAL   SCHOOLS 

or  some  other  incentive  may  be  offered  for  successful 
completion  of  the  work.  The  majority  of  the  courses 
are  of  the  short-unit  type,  intended  to  prepare  for  or 
improve  the  employee  in  a  limited  field.  Longer  courses, 
including  a  considerable  amount  of  related  academic  and 
technical  studies,  may  be  outlined  for  those  desiring  to 
prepare  for  more  responsible  positions.  The  proportion 
of  productive  work  in  comparison  with  the  time  given 
to  classroom  exercises  varies  according  to  the  aim  of  the 
course  and  the  previous  training  of  the  students. 

This  plan  may  be  combined  with  or  include  any  of 
the  eight  methods  outlined  above,  or  relations  may  be 
maintained  with  public  or  private  schools  in  giving  co- 
operative or  continuation  education.  (See  page  171.) 

10.  Special  Classes 

In  many  firms  there  is  no  functionalized  educational 
organization.  Training  is  accomplished  by  foremen  or 
department  heads.  Office  and  executive  positions  are 
filled  from  trained  persons  drawn  from  outside  sources. 
Under  these  conditions,  the  need  may  occasionally  arise 
for  giving  special  training  to  small  groups.  Classes  for 
clerical  employees,  evening  lectures  on  technical  subjects, 
or  lectures  and  discussions  for  foremen  may  be  organized 
on  this  basis. 

11.  Americanization 

The  aims  differ  from  those  held  by  the  public  school 
in  that  the  private  corporation  is  interested  primarily 
in  helping  the  foreigner  or  illiterate  to  gain  a  command 
of  spoken  and  written  English  so  that  he  may  become 
a  more  efficient  workman.  Training  for  citizenship  is 
usually  incidental  or  wholly  neglected,  the  emphasis  being 
placed  upon  the  use  of  shop  terms  and  simple  English. 
Instruction  is  offered  in  both  day  and  evening  classes, 
either  with  or  without  remuneration  to  the  employee  for 
the  time  spent. 


APPENDIX  L 

BIBLIOGRAPHY      * 

GENERAL  REFERENCES 

Allen,   Charles  R.     The   Instructor,  the  Man,  and  the  Job.     J.   B. 

Lippincott  Company,  1919.     373  pp. 
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Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois,  1918.    School  and  Home  Educa- 
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Carlton,  Frank  T.     Education  and  Industrial  Evolution.    The  Mac- 

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Columbia  University.    Teachers'  College.    Horace  Mann  School.   The 

Curriculum  of  the  Horace  Mann  Elementary  School.    New  York, 

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Hearings  on  the  Smith-Hughes  Bill. 
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Commons,  John  R.     Trade  Unionism  and  Labor  Problems.     Ginn 

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Industrial  Goodwill.     McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York, 

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and  Andrews,  John  B.    Principles  of  Labor  Legislation.    Harper 

and  Brothers,  1916.     524  pp. 
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The  Worker  and  the  State.     Century  Company,  1910.     355  pp. 

Dewey,  John,  and  Dewey,  Evelyn.     Schools  of  To-morrow.     E.  P. 

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and  Hughes,  34  Cross  Street,  Manchester,  England,  1918.   175  pp. 

402 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  4°3 

Eaton,  Jeanette,  and  Stevens,  Bertha  M.  Commercial  Work  and 
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Evans,  Henry  R.  Bibliography  of  Industrial,  Vocational,  and  Trade 
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Gantt,    Henry    L.      Industrial    Leadership.     Yale   University    Press, 

1916.  128  pp.     Especially  Chapter  II,  "Training  Workmen." 
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of  Scientific  Methods  to  the  Labor  Problem";  Chapter  II,  "The 
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"Fixing  Habits  of  Industry." 

Groat,  George  G.  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Organized  Labor  in 
America.  The  Macmillan  Company,  1916.  494  pp. 

Hanus,  Paul  H.  Beginnings  in  Industrial  Education  and  Other 
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Educational  Aims  and  Educational  Values.  The  Macmillan  Com- 
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Hoxie,  Robert  F.  Scientific  Management  and  Labor.  D.  Appleton 
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Hutchins,  B.  L.,  and  Harrison,  A.    A  History  of  Factory  Legislation. 

P.  S.  King  and  Son,  London,  1911.    298  pp. 
Jones,  Edward  D.     The  Administration  of   Industrial   Enterprises. 

Longmans,  Green  and  Company,  1916.    442  pp. 
Kelly,   Roy  W.     Hiring  the   Worker.     The   Engineering   Magazine 

Company.     250  pp. 

Contains  a  bibliography  on  employment  management. 
Leake,   Albert    H.     Industrial    Education:     Its    Problems,    Methods, 

and  Dangers.     Houghton,  Mifflin  Company,  1913.     205  pp. 
The   Vocational    Education    of   Girls   and   Women.     The   Mac- 
millan Company,   1918.     430  pp. 
Leavitt,   Frank   M.     Examples  of  Industrial   Education.     Ginn  and 

Company,   1912.     330  pp. 
and    Brown,    Edith.      Prevocational    Education    in    the    Public 

Schools.     Houghton,  Mifflin  Company,   1915.     245  pp. 


404  APPENDIX 

McCann,  M.  R.  The  Fitchburg  Plan  of  Co-operative  Industrial 
Education.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin,  1913,  No.  50. 

Marot,  Helen.  The  Creative  Impulse  in  Industry.  E.  P.  Button 
Company,  1918.  146  pp. 

Marshall,  Alfred.  Principles  of  Economics.  Vol.  I,  5th  Ed.  The 
Macmillan  Company,  1907,  pp.  286-301,  "Industrial  Training"; 
and  pp.  640-653,  "Demand  and  Supply  in  Relation  to  Labor." 

Mitchell,  John.  The  Wage-Earner  and  His  Problems.  P.  S,  Rids- 
dale,  Washington,  D.  C,  1913.  186  pp. 

Moore,  J.  R,  H.  Industrial  History  of  the  American  People.  The 
Macmillan  Company,  1913.  496  pp. 

More  Education  Pays.     National  Child  Labor  Committee,  105  East 
22nd  Street,  New  York  City.     31  pp. 
A  syllabus  for  the  use  of  teachers. 

Munroe,  James  P.  New  Demands  in  Education.  Doubleday,  Page 
and  Company,  1912.  312  pp.  Especially  Chapter  III,  "Education 
as  Prevention";  Chapter  VIII,  "The  Pressing  Need  for  Indus- 
trial Education";  Chapter  XV,  "The  Mechanic  Arts";  and 
Chapter  XVI,  "Manual  Training." 

National  Education  Association.  Addresses  and  Proceedings  of 
Annual  Meetings.  See  reports  of  the  Department  of  Vocational 
Education  and  Practical  Arts. 

National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education,  140 
East  42nd  Street,  New  York  City. 

Series  of  bulletins  on  vocational  education. 

Opportunities  for  Handicapped  Men;  prepared  by  the  Bureau  of 
Vocational  Guidance,  Division  of  Education,  Harvard  University 
in  Co-operation  with  the  Red  Cross  Institute  for  Crippled  and 
Disabled  Men,  New  York.  New  York,  Red  Cross  Institute, 
1919.  10  vols. 

A  series  of  studies  of  New  England  industries  which  show 
the  number  and  nature  of  opportunities  for  handicapped  men. 
Complete  descriptions  of  operations  are  given  in  every  case, 
and  each  study  contains  a  chapter  on  the  methods  of  training 
employees  for  the  industry. 

Richards,  Charles  R.  Gary  Public  Schools :  Industrial  Work.  General 
Education  Board,  61  Broadway,  New  York  City,  1918.  204  pp. 

Schneider,  Herman.  Education  for  Industrial  Workers.  World 
Book  Company,  1915.  98  pp. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  4<>5 

Slichter,  Sumner.  The  Turnover  of  Factory  Labor.  D.  Appleton 
and  Company,  1919.  460  pp. 

Thompson,  Clarence  B.  Scientific  Management.  Harvard  University 
Press,  1914.  878  pp. 

Thompson,  Frank  V.  Commercial  Education  in  Public  Secondary 
Schools.  World  Book  Company,  1915.  School  Efficiency  Series. 
194  pp. 

Veblen,  Thorstein.  The  Theory  of  Business  Enterprise.  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons,  1904.  400  pp.  Especially  Chapter  IX,  "Civiliza- 
tion and  the  Machine  Process" ;  and  Chapter  X,  ''The  Natural 
Decay  of  Business  Enterprise." 

The  Theory  of  the  Leisure  Class.  Huebsch,  1912.  404  pp. 

Chapter  VIII,  "Industrial  Exemption  and  Conservatism." 

Weeks,  Ruth  Mary.  The  People's  School:  A  Study  in  Vocational 
Training.  Houghton,  Mififlin  Company,  1912.  207  pp. 


CHAPTER    I — INDUSTRIAL    TRAINING    AND    PRESENT-DAY 

INDUSTRY 

American  Labor  Legislation  Review,  May,   1914,  pp.  404-420;   and 

June,  1915,  pp.  459-463. 

Both  issues  contain  bibliographies  on  unemployment. 
American   Labor   Legislation   Review,    Vol.    5,    No.   2,   June,    1915. 

"Unemployment." 

Contains  a  bibliography  of  the  subject  and  a  comprehensive 

plan  for  reducing  unemployment  in  the  United  States. 
Beveridge,   William    H.     Unemployment:    A   Problem    of   Industry. 

Longmans,  Green  and  Company,  1912.    405  pp. 
Bureau  of  Labor   Statistics.     Unemployment  in  the  United   States, 

Washington,  1916.     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.     Bulletin 

No.  195.     115  pp. 
Emmet,  Boris.    "Labor  Turnover  in  Cleveland  and  Detroit."    Monthly 

Labor  Review,  January,  1919,  pp.  11-30. 
"Nature    and    Computation    of    Labor    Turnover."     Journal   of 

Political  Economy,  February,  1919,  pp.  105-116. 
Kellor,  Frances  A.     Out  of   Work.     G.   P.    Putnam's   Sons,    1915. 

569  pp. 


406  APPENDIX 

Mills,  Frederick  C.  Contemporary  Theories  of  Unemployment  and 
Unemployment  Relief.  Longmans,  Green  and  Company,  1917. 
178  pp. 

Turner,  Mrs.  V.  B.  'Training  Women  for  War  Work:  A  Bib- 
liography." Monthly  Labor  Review,  August,  1918,  pp.  384-391. 

Van  Kleek,  Mary.  Women  in  the  Bookbinding  Trade.  New  York, 
Survey  Associates,  1913.  Russell  Sage  Foundation.  270  pp. 

Willits,  Joseph.  Steadying  Employment.  Supplement  to  the  Annals 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  May, 
1916.  104  pp. 

CHAPTER  II — INADEQUATE  INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING  AND  ITS 

RESULTS 

Abels,  Margaret  H.     From   School  to   Work.     Washington,  U.   S. 

Children's  Bureau,   1917.     59  pp. 
Chicago    Public    Schools.      Report    of    the    Bureau    of    Vocational 

Guidance  for  1916.     Superintendent  of  Schools,  Chicago. 
Conditions   under   which.  Children    Leave    School,  to    go    to    Work. 

Report  of  the   Condition  of  Women  and  Child  Wage-Earners 

in  the  United  States.    Vol.  7.    6ist  Congress,  Senate  Document, 

No.  645,   1910.     309  pp. 
Inglis,  Alexander.     Principles  of  Secondary  Education.     Houghton, 

Mifflin  Company,  1918.    741  pp.    Chapters  I-IV. 
Munroe,  James  P.     New  Demands  in  Education.     Doubleday,  Page 

and    Company,    1912.      312    pp.      Especially    Chapter    I,    "The 

Grievance  of  the  Average  Boy  Against  the  Average  School"; 

and  Chapter  II,  "The  Common  School." 
Slichter,   Sumner.     The  Turnover  of  Factory  Labor.     D.  Appleton 

and  Company,  1919.     460  pp. 

See  especially  Chapter  XV,  "Breaking  in  the  New  Worker" ; 

and  Chapter  XVII,  "The  Supervisor  of  Labor." 


CHAPTER  III — EARLIER  FORMS  OF  APPRENTICESHIP 

Commons,  John  R.  Trade  Unionism  and  Labor  Problems.  Ginn 
and  Company,  1905.  See  pp.  304-315,  "The  System  of  Appren- 
ticeship at  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works." 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  4°7 

Ely,  Richard  T.  Studies  in  the  Evolution  of  Industrial  Society.  The 
Macmillan  Company,  1913.  497  pp. 

Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Statistics.  The  Apprenticeship  System. 
Part  I  of  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Statistics  of  Labor,  for  1906. 
pp.  1-85. 

A  review  of  the  statistics  of  apprenticeship  in  Massachusetts, 
particularly  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  effect  of  organized 
labor. 

Minnesota  State  Bureau  of  Labor.  Fourth  Biennial  Report,  1893, 
pp.  126-382. 

An  exhaustive  report  on  apprenticeship,  with  particular 
reference  to  Minnesota.  It  reviews  the  conditions  in  all  of 
the  leading  trades  and  gives  a  brief  account  of  the  earlier 
historical  aspects  of  apprenticeship  in  the  United  States  and  in 
Europe.  A  summary  of  recommendations  for  future  trade  agree- 
ments and  legislation  concludes  the  article. 

New  York  State  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  Labor.  Seventh  Annual 
Report.  James  B.  Lyon,  1890. 

Gives  tables  showing 'all  the  causes  of  strikes  and  the  pro- 
portion called  on  account  of  disagreements  regarding  the  condi- 
tions of  apprenticeship. 

Reports  of  the  Industrial  Commission  of  the  U.  S.  1900-1902.  Vol. 
17,  Reports  on  Labor  Organizations.  1309  pp.  (See  index  under 
"Apprenticeship.") 

Vol.  15,  Reports  on  Immigration  and  Education.    840+259  pp. 

Scott,  Jonathan  F.  Historical  Essays  on  Apprenticeship  and  Voca- 
tional Education.  Ann  Arbor  Press,  1914.  96  pp. 

Seybolt,  Robert  F.  Apprenticeship  and  Apprenticeship  Education  in 
Colonial  New  England  and  New  York.  New  York,  Teachers' 
College,  1917.  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  85.  121  pp. 


CHAPTER  IV — BEGINNINGS  IN  MODERN  INDUSTRIAL 
EDUCATION 

Abbott,   Edith.     Women   in   Industry.     D.   Appleton   and   Company, 

1910.    409  pp. 
American    Academy    of    Political    and    Social    Science.      Industrial 

Education.     The  Annals,  Vol.  33,  No.   I,  January,   1909. 


408  APPENDIX 

A  valuable  collection  of  articles  relative  to  trade  and  industrial 

education. 
Bengston,  Caroline.     "Private  Trade  Schools  in  Chicago."     Manual 

Training  and  Vocational  Education,  March,  1916,  pp.  497-510. 
Dean,  Arthur  D.     The  Worker  and  the  State.     Century  Company, 

1910-     355  PP- 

Gompers,  Samuel.  "Industrial  Education  and  the  American  Federa- 
tion of  Labor."  Manual  Training  and  Vocational  Education, 
February,  1915,  pp.  329-339. 

Jessup,  Walter  Albert.  Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision 
in  the  Public  Schools  of  the  United  States.  New  York,  Teachers' 
College,  1911.  123  pp.  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  43. 
See  Chapter  IV,  "Manual  Training." 

National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools.  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Continuation  Schools.  Seventh  Annual  Proceedings, 
Chicago,  1919,  pp.  535-546. 

Sixth  Annual  Report,  1918. 

Reports  of  committees  and  special  articles  regarding  corpora- 
tion schools.    See  also  Annual  Reports  for  1915,  1916,  and  1917. 

National  Association  of  Manufacturers.  Reports  of  the  Committee 
on  Industrial  Education,  1915-1918.  New  'York,  30  Church 
Street. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.  "Apprenticeship  in  Wisconsin." 
Monthly  Labor  Review,  October,  1917,  pp.  801-804. 


CHAPTER  V — NATIONAL  AND  STATE  AID  FOR  VOCATIONAL 

EDUCATION 

Butler,  Nicholas  Murray  (Editor).  Education  in  the  United  States. 
American  Book  Company,  1910.  1068  pp.  "Art  and  Industrial 
Education,"  pp.  707-767. 

Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education.  Annual  Reports  for  1917 
and  1918.  See  also  Bulletin  No.  I,  "Statement  of  Plans  and 
Policies";  Bulletin  No.  18,  "Evening  Industrial  Schools";  Bul- 
letin No.  19,  "Part-Time  Trade  and  Industrial  Education"; 
Bulletin  No.  20,  "Buildings  and  Equipment  for  Schools  and 
Classes  in  Trade  and  Industrial  Subjects";  and  a  series  of  special 
bulletins  on  emergency  war  training  for  various  trades. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  4°9 

National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education.  What 
is  the  Smith-Hughes  Bill  Providing  Federal  Grants  to  Voca- 
tional Education  and  What  Must  a  State  Do  to  Take  Advantage 
of  the  Federal  Vocational  Education  Law?  Bulletin  No.  25, 
March,  1917.  48  pp. 

Wisconsin  State  Board  of  Industrial  Education.  Biennial  Reports 
for  the  Periods  Ending  July,  1914,  and  July,  1916.  Wisconsin 
State  Board  of  Education,  Madison,  Wisconsin. 

Outlines  of  Lessons.     Bulletin  No.   10,  1914.     516  pp. 

Note:  The  states  which  have  adopted  the  plans  of  the  Federal 
Board  for  Vocational  Education  have  all  issued  printed  state- 
ments regarding  their  proposed  plans  of  organization,  which 
may  be  secured  upon  application  to  the  state  authorities. 


CHAPTER  VI — TECHNICAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  AND  CLASSES 

Book,  W.  F.  Vocational  Education  and  the  High  School.  University 
of  Illinois.  School  of  Education.  Proceedings  of  the  High 
School  Conference,  1915,  pp.  226-236.  Bulletin  No.  15.  356  pp. 
Argues  in  favor  of  a  junior  high  school  organization  and 
more  courses  of  direct  vocational  value  in  the  high  school. 
Contains  a  list  of  books  on  manual  training  and  shopwork  for 
a  school  library,  pp.  237-239. 

Bowen,  Louise  De  Koven.  Safeguards  for  City  Youth  at  Work  and 
at  Play.  Chapter  III,  "Legal  Protection  in  Industry."  The 
Macmillan  Company,  1914.  241  pp. 

Brown,  Elmer  Ellsworth.  The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools. 
Longmans,  Green  and  Company,  1903.  547  pp. 

Cardinal  Principles  of  Secondary  Education.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, Bulletin,  1918,  No.  35.  32  pp. 

A  review  of  the  cardinal  principles  which  should  guide  the 
reorganization  and  development  of  secondary  education  in  the 
United  States.  Discusses  briefly  the  problem  of  part-time 
schooling. 

Cooley,  Edwin  G.  Vocational  Education  in  Europe.  Chicago,  A.  C. 
McClurg  and  Company,  1915.  2  vols. 

Inglis,  Alexander.  Principles  of  Secondary  Education.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  Company,  1918.  741  pp.  Chapter  XVII,  "The  Place  of 
Vocational  Arts  in  the  Program";  Chapter  XXI,  "The  Organiza- 
tion of  Secondary  Education." 


410  APPENDIX 

Leake,  Albert  H.  Industrial  Education :  Its  Problems,  Methods,  and 
Dangers.  Houghton,  Mifflin  Company,  1913.  205  pp.  Chapter 
IV,  "Manual  Training:  Its  Success,  Its  Failures,  and  Its  Reor- 
ganization in  Response  to  Present  Conditions";  Chapter  V,  "Some 
New  Types  of  Schools." 

Leavitt,  Frank  M.  Examples  of  Industrial  Education.  Ginn  and 
Company,  1912.  330  pp. 

Chapters  I  to  VIII  contain  a  general  discussion  of  the  field 
of  vocational  education.  The  development  and  aims  of  manual 
training  are  covered  in  Chapter  II.  Chapter  XII,  "Vocational 
High  Schools,"  describes  the  work  of  the  Albert  G.  Lane  Tech- 
nical High  School,  Chicago. 

Moore,  Ernest  C.  Fifty  years  of  American  Education,  1867-1917. 
Ginn  and  Company,  1917.  96  pp. 

The  introduction  of  drawing  and  manual  training  (pp.  53-58)  ; 
beginnings  in  vocational  and  technical  education  (pp.  76-80). 

University  of  Illinois,  School  of  Education.  Proceedings  of  the 
High  School  Conference.  November,  1914.  Bulletin  No.  13. 
328  pp. 

The  manual  arts  section  (pp.  219-236)  contains  several  in- 
teresting papers  on  manual  training  and  mechanical  drawing. 

University  of  Illinois.  School  of  Education.  Proceedings  of  the 
High  School  Conference,  November,  1916. 

The  manual  arts  section  (pp.  184-196)  contains  the  following 
articles:  "Typical  Methods  of  Teaching";  "List  of  Books  on 
Manual  Training";  "What  is  Wanted  in  a  Manual  Training 
Text-Book";  "Selection  and  Training  of  Teachers." 

Vocational  Secondary  Education.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education.  Bul- 
letin, 1916,  No.  21.  163  pp. 

A  statement  of  the  principles  and  problems  involved.  Dis- 
tinguishes the  various  types  of  vocational  secondary  schools, 
discusses  briefly  the  methods  of  organizing,  introducing,  and 
financing  them,  the  making  of  occupational  surveys,  and  the 
relation  between  vocational  education  and  vocational  guidance. 

School  Surveys 

Chicago.  Board  of  Education.  Survey  of  Chicago  Public  Schools, 
1914.  Reprinted  from  annual  report  of  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Schools  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1914.  257  pp. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  4" 

Indiana  State  Board  of  Education.  Report  of  the  Indianapolis, 
Indiana,  Survey  for  Vocational  Education.  Indiana  State  Board 
of  Education,  1917.  Indiana  Survey  Series  No.  6.  Educational 
Bulletin  No.  21,  January  I,  1917.  2  v. 

Minneapolis,  Minnesota.  Vocational  Education  Survey,  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics,  1917,  Bulletin  No.  199.  592  pp.  (pp.  41-82, 
"Vocational  Work  in  the  High  Schools";  pp.  431-538,  "Various 
Phases  of  Vocational  and  Technical  Education.") 

Superintendent's  Report  and  School  Survey  by  the  Department  of 
Education  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  1914,  pp.  138-167, 
"Education  for  Vocation." 

The  Public  School  System  of  San  Francisco,  California.  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Education.  Bulletin,  1917,  No.  46.  649  pp. 

Unpublished  Report  of  the  Fall  River  Survey  made  by  the  Harvard 
Division  of  Education  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Ernest  C. 
Moore.  Section  on  Secondary  Education  prepared  by  Professor 
Alexander  Inglis. 


CHAPTER  VII — DEVELOPING  THE  POSSIBILITIES  OF  THE 

SCHOOLS 

Crawshaw,  Fred  D.  Manual  Arts.  Bulletin  of  the  Wisconsin  State 
Board  of  Industrial  Education,  No.  6. 

Garritt,  A.  W.  "A  Manual  Training  Course  with  an  Industrial 
Purpose."  Manual  Training  and  Vocational  Education.  June, 
1916,  pp.  755-761. 

Hanus,  Paul  H.  Educational  Aims  and  Educational  Values.  The 
Macmillan  Company,  1899.  Chapter  II,  "A  Recent  Tendency 
in  Secondary  Education  Examined";  Chapter  IV,  "What  Should 
the  Modern  Secondary  School  Aim  to  Accomplish  ?" ;  and  Chapter 
V,  "Secondary  Education  as  a  Unifying  Force  in  American 
'  Life." 

High  School  Masters'  Club  of  Massachusetts.  Report  of  Committee 
on  Part-Time  Education  as  a  Minimum  Requirement  for  Every- 
one up  to  the  Age  of  Eighteen  Years.  March,  1919. 

Lutz,  R.  R.  Wage-Earning  and  Education.  New  York,  Russell 
Sage  Foundation,  1916.  Cleveland  Foundation,  Publication  No. 
25.  208  pp. 


412  APPENDIX 

Massachusetts  Board  of  Education.  Special  report  on  the  needs 
and  possibilities  of  part-time  education.*  1913.  164  pp. 

Richards,  Arthur  W.  -"The  Application  of  Productive  Workshop 
Methods  to  the  Purposes  of  -Manual  Training."  Manual  Tram- 
ing  and  Vocational  Education,  January,  1916.  pp.  329-335. 

Snedden,  David.  Problems  of  Secondary  Education.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  Company,  1917.  333  pp.  Chapters  V  to  X  inclusive. 


CHAPTER  VIII — RELATION  OF  EMPLOYMENT  MANAGEMENT 
TO  INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING 

American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social   Science.     The  Annals. 

Especially  numbers  for  May,  1916 — "Personnel  and  Employment 

Problems";    May,    1917 — "Stabilizing    Industrial    Employment"; 

and  May,  1916,  Supplement — "Steadying  Employment." 
Bloomfield,  Daniel.     Selected  Articles  on  Employment  Management. 

H.  W.  Wilson  Company,  1920.     507  pp. 
Bloomfield,  Meyer.    Labor  and  Compensation.    New  York  Industrial 

Extension  Institute,  1918.     Factory  management  course,  Vol.  7. 

445  PP. 

Cadbury,  Edward.  Experiments  in  Industrial  Organization.  Long- 
mans, Green  and  Company,  1913.  296  pp. 

Emerson,  Harrington.  "Human  Parasitism  or  Service."  Industrial 
Management,  April,  1919,  pp.  257-262. 

A  classification  of  human  activities  upon  which  are  based 
comments  regarding  the  proper  functions  of  training  and  service 
departments  in  industrial  concerns. 

Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education.    Employment  Management 
Series.    Washington,  1919. 
A  series  of  bulletins. 

Hartness,  James.  The  Human  Factor  in  Works  Management. 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  1912.  159  pp. 

Henderschott,  F.  C,  and  Weakley,  F.  E.  The  Employment  Depart- 
ment and  Employees  Relations.  La  Salle  Extension  University, 
Chicago,  1918.  60  pp. 

Jones,  Edward  D.  Employment  Management.  Opportunity  Mono- 
graph, Vocational  Rehabilitation  Series,  No.  12.  Federal  Board 
for  Vocational  Education.  1919. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  4*3 

Jones,  Edward  D.  (Editor).  A  series  of  bulletins  on  employment  man- 
agement, published  by  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education. 

Kelly,  R.  W.  Hiring  the  Worker.  The  Engineering  Magazine  Com- 
pany. 250  pp. 

Link,  H.  C.  Employment  Psychology.  The  Macmillan  Company, 
1919.  440  pp. 

Metcalf,  Henry  C.,  and  Tead,  Ordway.  Personnel  Administration. 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  1920.  520  pp. 

Proceedings  of  the  Conference  of  Employment  Managers'  Associa- 
tion of  Boston,  Mass.:  Held  May  10,  1916.  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics,  1916.  Bulletin  No.  202.  64  pp. 

Proceedings  of  Employment  Managers'  Conference,  1916.  U.  S. 

Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  1916.  Bulletin  No.  196.  82  pp. 

Proceedings  of  the  Employment  Managers'  Conference, 

Rochester,  N.  Y.,  May  9,  10,  and  n,  1918.  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics,  1918.  Bulletin  No.  247.  249  pp. 


CHAPTER  IX — THE  NEW  APPRENTICESHIP 

Bennett,    Charles   A.      The    School    Factory    at    Bradley    Institute. 
Manual  Training  and   Vocational  Education,   March,    1916,   pp. 

520-534. 
Fuld,  Leonard  F.     Service  Instruction  of  American  Corporations. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education.    Bulletin,  1916,  No.  34.    73  pp. 
Leake,  Albert  H.    Industrial  Education:  Its  Problems,  Methods,  and 

Dangers.     Houghton,  Mifflin  Company,  1913.    205  pp.     Chapter 

VII,  "Apprenticeship." 

Prosser,  Charles  A.    The  New  Apprenticeship  as  a  Factor  in  Reduc- 
ing Labor  Turnover.     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  1916. 

Bulletin  No.  196,  pp.  45-52. 
Reports  of  the  Committee  on  Trade  Apprenticeship.    Annual  reports 

of  the  National  Association  of  Corporation   Schools,  for  .1915 

to  1918. 
Ripley,   Charles  M.     "The  Apprentice   System."     General  Electric 

Review,  January,  1918,  pp.  82-91. 
The  Apprentice  Department  of  the  Midvale  Steel  Company.    National 

Association  of  Corporation  Schools.     Bulletin,  Vol.  V,  No.  8, 

August,    1918,  pp.  372-74.     See  also  brief  notes  on  apprentice 

schools  in  every  issue  of  the  Bulletin. 


414  APPENDIX 

Wisconsin     Industrial     Commission.       Apprenticeship.       Report  on 
Allied  Functions  for  the  Two  Years  Ending  June  30,  1917,  pp. 

41-43-  > 
Apprenticeship  in  Wisconsin^     Second  Annual  Report,  January 

i,    1917 — June    30,    1918.      Wisconsin    Industrial    Commission, 

1918. 
Wright,  Carroll  D.     The  Apprenticeship  System  in  Its  Relation  to 

Industrial   Education.     U.    S.    Bureau   of   Education.     Bulletin, 

1906,  No.  6.     116  pp. 


CHAPTER  X — VESTIBULE  TRAINING  AND  IMPROVEMENT  IN 

SERVICE 

Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.  Short-Unit  Courses  for  Wage-Earners, 
and  a  Factory  School  Experiment.  Washington,  1915.  Bulletin 
No.  159.  93  pp. 

The  first  study  gives  a  general  and  detailed  view  of  what 
is  being  accomplished  in  part-time  and  short-course  work.  The 
second  describes  the  gain  to  workers  and  employers  in  an  actual 
experiment. 

Carpenter,  C.  U.  "How  We  Trained  5,000  Women."  Industrial 
Management,  May,  1918,  pp.  353-357. 

Collyer,  Norman.  Mobilizing  Intelligence.  National  Association  of 
Corporation  Schools.  Bulletin,  Vol.  V,  No.  3,  March,  1919, 
pp.  130-138. 

Committee  on  Industrial  Education  of  the  National  Association  of 
Manufacturers.  Annual  Reports  on  Industrial  Education  for 
1915-1918. 

These  reports  contain  reviews  of  current  legislation  and 
resolutions  adopted  by  the  National  Association  of  Manu- 
facturers. 

Eaton,  J.  M.  "The  Vestibule  School  of  the  Lincoln  Motor  Company." 
industrial  Management,  December,  1918,  pp.  452-455. 

Hollingworth,  H.  L.,  and  Poffenberger,  A.  T.  Applied  Psychology. 
D.  Appleton  and  Company,  1917.  337  pp.  Chapter  IV,  "Effi- 
ciency and  Learning." 

Kelly,  R.  W.,  and  Allen,  F.  J.  The  Shipbuilding  Industry.  Houghton, 
MifHin  and  Company,  1918.  303  pp.  Chapter  XI,  "Recruiting 
and  Training  an  Industrial  Army." 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  4*5 

McNary,  E.  E.  "Beginners  in  Trade  Schools."  Manual  Training 
and  Vocational  Education,  September,  1915,  pp.  14-28. 

Pearson,  Charles  L.  Introducing  the  New  Employee.  Annals  of 
the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  May, 
1916,  pp.  229-231. 

Russell,  James  W.  "Installing  a  Training  Department  in  the  Buffalo 
Factory  of  the  Curtiss  Aeroplane  and  Motor  Corporation/'  In- 
dustrial Management,  March,  1919,  pp.  177-182. 

Stanbrough,  D.  G.  "Packard  Training  Schools  for  Employees/' 
Industrial  Management,  November,  1918,  pp.  378-382. 

Thayer,  Gertrude  B.  Organization  and  Administration  of  Corpora- 
tion School  Work.  National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools, 
Sixth  Annual  Report,  July,  1918,  pp.  99-127. 

Training  and  Dilution  Service.  British  Methods  of  Training 
Workers  in  War  Industries.  Training  and  Dilution  Service  of 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Labor,  1918.  68  pp. 

Series  of  bulletins  on  methods  of  industrial  training.  Several 

of  them  contain  detailed  accounts  of  plans  in  use  in  different 
concerns. 

Weakley,  F.  E.  "How  We  Are  Training  Women  Workers."  Sys- 
tem, December,  1917,  pp.  909-911. 


CHAPTER  XI — TRAINING  MINOR  EXECUTIVES 

Colvin,  Fred  H.  "Training  Instructors  According  to  the  Gisholt 
Idea."  American  Machinist,  April  18,  1918,  pp.  645-647,  and 
May  16,  1918,  pp.  813-819. 

Describes  the  training  methods  in  use  by  the  Gisholt  machine- 
shops. 

Fox,  Harriet  R.  Strawbridge  and  Clothier  School.  National  Associa- 
tion of  Corporation  Schools.  Bulletin,  Vol.  IV,  No.  12,  Decem- 
ber, 1917,  pp.  30-33. 

Franklin,  B.  A.  Experiences  in  Efficiency.  Engineering  Magazine 
Company,  1915.  167  pp.  Chapter  X,  pp.  148-167. 

The  need  for  developing  interest  and  willingness  on  the  part 
of  executives  to  carry  out  a  program  of  efficiency  which  can 
be  applied  to  the  same  problem  in  dealing  with  employees. 

Kelly,  Roy  W.  "Training  Minor  Executives  in  a  Large  Shoe  Fac- 
tory." Industrial  Management,  October,  1918,  pp.  316-319. 


416  APPENDIX 

Kelly,  Roy   W.     Hiring  the  Worker.     The  Engineering  Magazine 

Company.     250  pp.     See  Chapter  VII,  "Initiating  Workers  into 

Their  Tasks."  ^ 

Ruggles,  Allen  W.     "Training  Engineers  and  Firemen."    Industrial 

Management,  February,  1918,  pp.  126-128. 
Stanbrough,  D.  G.     "Training  for  Factory  Executives."    Industrial 

Management,  March,  1919,  pp.  175-176. 

CHAPTER  XII — THE  FOREMAN'S  TRAINING 

Bloomfield,  Meyer.  "Relations  of  Foremen  to  the  Working  Force." 
Industrial  Management,  June,  1917,  pp.  340-349. 

Bowie,  George  W.  "Foremen — Such  as  America  Needs."  Industrial 
Management,  August,  1917,  pp.  702-713. 

Clothier,  R.  C.  "Relations  between  the  Employment  Manager  and 
Other  Department  Heads."  Industrial  Management,  January, 
1917,  PP.  557-56o. 

Coburn,  Frederick  G.  "A  Foreman's  Responsibility  and  Authority." 
Industrial  Management,  June,  1917,  pp.  349-353. 

Deeley,  W.  J.    Labor  Difficulties  and  Suggested  Solutions.     Sherratt 
and  Hughes,  Manchester,  England,  1918,  pp.  8-19  and  86-122. 
An  analysis  of  the  work  of  foremen  and  workshop  committees. 

Fish,  E.  H.  "Relations  between  the  Employment  Department  and 
Foremen."  Industrial  Management,  January,  1917,  pp.  557. 

Gehring,  A.    Racial  Contrasts.     G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1908.    237  pp. 

Hartness,  James.  The  Human  Factor  in  Works  Management, 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  1912.  159  pp. 

Horton,  Charles  M.  "Under  New  Management — Judging  Men." 
Industrial  Management,  March,  1918,  pp.  225-227. 

Hunter,  J.  V.  "Creating  a  Class  of  Super-Foremen."  American 
Machinist,  May  23,  1918,  pp.  865-866. 

Jones,  Mark  M.  "What  I  Would  Do  if  I  Were  a  Foreman."  Indus- 
trial Management,  July,  1918,  pp.  59-61. 

Kelly,  Roy  W.  "Employment  Manager  and  Foreman."  Industrial 
Management,  January,  1918,  pp.  65-66. 

Kimball,  Dexter  S.  Principles  of  Industrial  Organization.  McGraw- 
Hill  Book  Company,  1913.  272  pp.  (See  pages  65-93.) 

Lazarovich-Hrebelianovich,  Prince.  Getting  the  Foreign  Workman's 
Viewpoint.  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers.  Bulletin, 
April,  1918,  pp.  905-912. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  4*7 

Leitch,  John.     Man  to   Man:   the   Story   of  Industrial    Democracy. 

B.   C.   Forbes   Company,    1919,   pp.    111-132,   "Must   a   Foreman 

Be  a  Pugilist?" 

National  Association  of  Employment  Managers.    Training  the  Super- 
visory Force.     Report  of  a  conference  held  in  New  York,  1920. 

Box  543,  Orange,  New  Jersey. 
Tead,  Ordway.    "The  Importance  of  Being  a  Foreman."      Industrial 

Management,  June,  1917,  pp.  353-355- 
Thompson,    C.    B.      (Editor).      Scientific    Management.      Harvard 

University  Press,  1914.     See  pp.  395-404,  "The  Foreman's  Place 

in  Scientific  Management." 
"Training   of   Foremen   as   Carried   on   at  the   New   Departure 

Manufacturing  Company."    Automotive  Industries,  May  9,  1918, 

pp.  924. 
Webb,    Sidney.     The   Works   Manager   To-day.     Longmans,    Green 

and  Company,    1917,  pp.   103-153.      (Manners  of  management; 

discipline;  fatigue  in  accidents;  welfare  work.) 


CHAPTER  XIII — VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  IN  SCHOOL  AND  IN 

INDUSTRY 

Andrew,  J.  B.  "Physical  Examination  of  Employees/'  New  York, 
American  Association  for  Labor  Legislation,  1915.  9  pp.  Also 
in  Journal  of  Public  Health,  Vol.  6,  pp.  825-829. 

Bloomfield,  Meyer.  Readings  in  Vocational  Guidance.  Ginn  and 
Company,  1915.  723  pp. 

A  collection  of  carefully  chosen  selections  from  the  literature 
of  vocational  guidance,  including  magazine  articles,  addresses, 
pamphlets,  and  original  investigations. 

Youth,  School  and  Vocation.    Houghton,  Miflflin  Company,  1915. 

273  pp. 

Brewer,  John  M.  The  Vocational-Guidance  Movement:  Its  Prob- 
lems and  Possibilities.  The  Macmillan  Company,  1918.  333  pp. 
A  thorough  treatment  of  the  principles  of  vocational  guidance. 
Contains  accounts  of  some  of  the  work  being  done  in  various 
cities  and  a  program  for  co-operation  between  the  schools  and 
industries  for  improvements  in  placement  and  supervision  after 
entering  employment. 


APPENDIX 

Brewer,  John  M.,  and  Kelly,  Roy  W.    A  Selected  Critical  Bibliography 

of  Vocational   Guidance.     Harvard  University,   1917.     76  pp. 
Cronin,  H.  J.     "The  Value  of  Heajj:h  Examinations."     Journal  of 

the  American  Medical  Association,  April  29,  1916,  p.  1,374. 
Davis,  George  B.     "Acquainting  the  Schools  with  Local  Industries." 

Manual  Training  Magazine,  June,  1917,  pp.  405-408. 
Giles,  Frederick  M.,  and  Giles,  Imogene  K.    Vocational  Civics.    The 

Macmillan  Company,  1919.     252  pp. 

A  text  for  the  use  of  classes  in  the  high  schools  or  upper 

grammar  grades. 
Gowin,  Enoch   B.,  and  Wheatley,  William  A.     Occupations.     Ginn 

and  Company,  1916.     357  pp. 

A  text-book  in  vocational  guidance  for  intermediate  schools 

and  high  schools. 
Hollingworth,    H.    L.      Vocational    Psychology.      D.    Appleton    and 

Company,  1917.    308  pp.     See  Chapter  I;  also  pp.  135-142;  158- 

161;    168-169;    174-207. 
Nicholson,    Frank    W.      "Success    in    College    and    in    After-Life." 

School  and  Society,  August  14,  1915,  pp.  229-232. 
Ryan,  W.  Carson,  Jr.     Vocational  Guidance  and  the  Public  Schools. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education.     Bulletin,  1918,  No.  24.     151  pp. 


CHAPTER  XIV — ORGANIZING  FOR  TRANSFERS  AND 
PROMOTIONS 

Gilbreth,  Frank  B.,  and  Gilbreth,  Lillian  M.  The  Three-Position 
Plan  of  Promotion.  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Political  and  Social  Science,  May,  1916,  pp.  289-296. 

Hoxie,  Robert  F.  Scientific  Management  and  Labor.  D.  Appleton 
and  Company,  1915,  pp.  92-95,  "Promotion  as  Affected  by  Scienti- 
fic Management." 

Hubbell,  N.  D.  "Written  Standard  Job  Specifications."  Industrial 
Management,  December,  1917,  pp.  431-436. 

Miller,  L.  A.  "A  Classification  of  Work."  100%  Efficiency  Maga- 
zine, October,  November,  December,  1917. 

Reilly,  Philip  J.  Planning  Promotion  for  Employees  and  its  Effect 
in  Reducing  Labor  Turnover.  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 
of  Political  and  Social  Science,  May,  1917,  pp.  136-139. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  4*9 

Stamford,  F.  C.  Training  of  Workmen  for  Positions  of  Higher 
Responsibility.  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers.  Bul- 
letin, February,  1918,  pp.  309-315. 

Stearns,  W.  D.  "Standardized  Occupations  and  Rates  in  the  Westing- 
house  Manufacturing  Company."  Industrial  Management,  May, 
1918,  pp.  408-410. 


CHAPTER  XV — RATING  EMPLOYEES 

• 

Burke,  R.  J.  Written  Specifications  for  Hiring.  Annals  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  May,  1916, 
pp.  176-181. 

Kelly,  Roy  W.  "Dangers  in  Rating  Employees."  Industrial  Man- 
agement, July  i,  1919,  pp.  35-42. 

Shepard,  George  H.  Application  of  Efficiency  Principles.  Engineer- 
ing Magazine  Company,  1917.  368  pp.  Especially  Chapter  X, 
"Standards." 

"How  to  Determine  Efficiency."  Industrial  Management,  May, 

1917,  pp.  199-208. 

Wilcox,  Robert  P.  "Finding  Who  Makes  the  Mistakes."  System, 
April,  1916,  pp.  421-423. 

Wolf,  Robert  B.  Non-Financial  Incentives.  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  29  West  39th  Street,  New  York  City. 
18  pp. 


CHAPTER  XVI — STANDARDS  FOR  RATING  SCHEMES 

Dearborn,  Walter  F.  School  and  University  Grades.  University  of 
Wisconsin,  1910.  59  pp. 

Harvard  University,  Division  of  Education.  The  Teaching  of 
Economics  in  Harvard  University.  Harvard  University  Press, 
1917.  248  pp.  Especially  Chapter  VII,  "Marking." 

Kelly,  Frederick  J.  Teachers'  Marks.  Teachers'  College,  Columbia 
University,  1914.  139  pp. 

Rugg,  Harold  O.  Teachers'  Marks  and  Marking  Systems.  Educa- 
tional Administration  and  Supervision.  Vol.  I,  p.  117,  Jan.,  1915. 


420  APPENDIX 

CHAPTER  XVII — THE  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  DEMOCRATIC 

PARTICIPATION  IN  MANAGEMENT 

•>* 

Bassett,  William  R.  "Where  a  Committee  Is  the  Boss."  Factory, 
November,  1917,  pp.  705-707. 

An  outline  of  the  committee  work  performed  by  groups  of 
executive  officers  in  a  manufacturing  establishment. 

Brandeis,  Louis  D.  "Efficiency  by  Consent."  Industrial  Management, 
February,  1918,  pp.  108-109. 

An  address  delivered  at  the  Frederick  W.  Taylor  Memorial 
Meeting,  October  22,  1915,  in  which  Mr.  Brandeis  expounded 
the  principles  that  labor  should  be  consulted  as  to  industrial 
changes,  should  be  convinced  that  they  are  needed,  and  asked 
to  give  its  consent  before  new  regulations  are  put  into  effect. 

Cadbury,  Edward.  Experiments  in  Industrial  Organization.  Long- 
mans, Green  and  Company,  1913,  pp.  200-212. 

The  experience  of  an  English  factory  in  establishing  men's 
and  women's  works  committees  and  in  managing  a  suggestion 
scheme.  Statistics  are  given  to  show  the  character  of  the 
results  obtained. 

Cooke,  Morris  L.  Who  Is  Boss  in  Your  Shop?  Annals  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  May,  1917, 
pp.  167-185. 

Employees  of  Bethlehem  Corporation  Share  in  Management.  Na- 
tional Association  of  Corporation  Schools.  Bulletin,  Vol.  V, 
No.  12,  December,  1918,  pp.  538-545. 

Employees'  Representation  Plan  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph 
Company.  National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools.  Bul- 
letin, Vol.  VI,  No.  4,  April,  1919,  pp.  152-168. 

Joint  Industrial  Councils  in  Great  Britain.     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics.     Bulletin  No.  255.     Washington,  July,  1919.     207  pp. 
Reprints  and  reports  of  the  Whitley  Committee  on  relations 
between  employers  and  employed  and  other  official  documents. 

Litchfield,  Paul  W.  The  Industrial  Republic.  Houghton,  Mifflin 
Company,  1919.  73  pp. 

Plan  of  Representation  of  Employees  of  the  Midvale  Steel  and 
Ordnance  Company.  National  Association  of  Corporation 
Schools.  Vol.  VI,  No.  3,  March,  1919,  pp.  108-114. 

Renold,  C.  G.  "Workshop  Committees."  Survey,  October  5,  1918, 
Supplement,  pp.  1-8. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  421 

Rockefeller,  John  D.,  Jr.  Representation  in  Industry.  An  address 
before  the  War  Emergency  and  Reconstruction  Conference  of 
the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United  States,  Atlantic  City, 
December  5,  1918.  New  York,  J.  D.  Rockefeller,  26  Broadway. 

3i  PP. 

Squires,  Benjamin  M.  Operation  of  the  Industrial  Disputes  Inves- 
tigation Act  of  Canada.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  1918. 

Bulletin  No.  233.     150  pp. 
Standard   Oil's    New    Labor   Democracy.      National    Association   of 

Corporation   Schools.     Bulletin,  Vol.  V,  No.  5,  May,   1918,  pp. 

203-214. 
Tead,  Ordway.    "Employees'  Organizations  and  Their  Helpful  Uses." 

Industrial  Management,  November,  1917,  pp.  249-256. 
"National    Organization    by    Industries."      The    New   Republic, 

February  6,   1919,  pp.  48-51. 
The  Co-operative  Plan  of  the  Philadelphia  Rapid  Transit  Company. 

National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools.    Bulletin,  Vol.  VI, 

No.  2,  February,  1919,  pp.  57-70. 
Valentine,  Robert  G.     The  Progressive  Relation  between  Efficiency 

and  Consent.     Bulletin  of  the  Taylor  Society,  Vol.  II,  No.   I, 

January,  1916,  pp.  7-20. 

A  statement  of  the   need   for   an   investigation   of  labor  in 

its  relation  to  scientific  management  which  will  bring  to  light 

the  neglected  field  of  individual  and  group  consent  to  changes 

in  methods  and  policies. 
Wolf,  Robert  B.     Individuality  in  Industry.    U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor 

Statistics.     Bulletin,  No.  227,  pp.   193-206.     Proceedings  of  the 

Employment  Managers'   Conference,  Philadelphia,   Pa.,  April  2 

and  3,  1917. 

The  experience  of  a  large  paper-mill  in  securing  the  interest 

and  co-operation  of  its  employees.    Suggests  a  system  of  records 

for  making  possible  closer  contact  between  executives  and  men. 


CHAPTER  XVIII — A  FACTORY  SURVEY  TO  ESTABLISH 
TRAINING 

Aronovici,    Dr.    Carol.      The    Social    Survey.      The    Harper    Press, 
Philadelphia,  1916.    268  pp. 
Contains  a  bibliography. 


422  APPENDIX 

Bliss,  Don  C.     Methods  and  Standards  for  Local  School  Surveys. 

D.  C.  Heath  and  Company,  1918.     264  pp. 
Byington,  Margaret  F.    What  Social  Workers  Should  Know  About 

Their  Own  Communities.     New  York,  Russell  Sage  Foundation, 

3d  Ed.,  1916.    43  pp. 
Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education.     Emergency  Training  in 

Shipbuilding.      Bulletin   No.   3,   January,   1918. 

Contains    analyses    for    the    shipbuilding    trades    which    are 

suggestive  of  the  kind  of  work  which  might  be  attempted  in 

other   industries. 
Hill,  David  S.     Industry  and  Education.     New  Orleans,  Commission 

Council,  1916.     409  pp.     Part  Two  of  a  vocational  survey  for 

the  Isaac  Delgado  Central  Trades  School. 
Indiana  State  Board  of  Education.    Report  of  the  Indianapolis  Survey 

for  Vocational  Education.    Educational  Bulletin  No.  21,  Survey 

Series  No.  4,  1917.    2  Vols. 
Lutz,  R.  R.     Wage-Earning  and  Education.     Cleveland  Foundation, 

Survey    Committee,    Russell    Sage    Foundation,    1916.      Publica- 
tion 25.    208  pp. 

See  also  the  following  numbers  of  the  Survey: 

Bryner,  E.,  The  Garment  Trades 
Lutz,  R.  R.,  The  Metal  Trades 
Shaw,  F.  P.,  The  Building  Trades 
Shaw,  F.  P.,  The  Printing  Trades 

Smith,  Harry  B.    Establishing  Industrial  Schools.    Houghton,  Mifflin 

Company,  1916.     166  pp. 
Towsley,  Prentice  W.     An  Educational  Report  on  a  Cotton  Textile 

Factory.     Sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  National  Association  of 

Corporation  Schools,  New  York,  July,   1918,  pp.  59-86. 

A  survey  of  a  cotton-mill  to  establish  training  for  employees. 

Contains  suggestive  charts  and  survey  blanks  for  collecting  and 

tabulating  information. 

See  also  article  by  G.  E.  Johnson,  entitled  "The  Establishment 

of  a  Corporation  School  in  an  Organization  Not  Having  Such 

an  Institution,"  pp.  88-96. 
Vocational  Education  Survey  of  Richmond,  Va.     U.  S.  Bureau  of 

Labor  Statistics.     Bulletin  No.  162.     Washington,  1915.    326  pp. 
Wolf,    Dale.      "What    an    Industrial    Census    Can    Do."     Industrial 

Management,   September,   1918,  pp.  213-216. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  423 

CHAPTER  XIX — A  NEW  EMPHASIS  IN  EDUCATION 

Cheney,  Howell.  The  School  and  the  Shop  from  the  Employer's 
Point  of  View.  National  Association  for  the  Promotion  of 
Industrial  Education.  Bulletin  No.  13,  Pt.  IV,  pp.  196-208. 

Dewey,  John.'  Democracy  and  Education.  The  Macmillan  Company, 
1916.  434  pp.  Chapter  XVII,  "Science  in  the  Course  of  Study"; 
Chapter  XXIII,  "Vocational  Aspects  of  Education";  Chapter 
XIX,  "Labor  and  Leisure." 

Kidd,  Benjamin.  The  Science  of  Power.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons, 
1918.  318  pp.  Chapter  X,  Social  Heredity. 

Parker,  Carleton  H.  "Motives  in  Economic  Life."  American 
Economic  Review,  March,  1918,  Sup.,  pp.  212-231. 

Snedden,  David.  "Vocational  Education  after  the  War."  School 
and  Society,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  209,  December  28,  1918,  pp.  751-758. 

Taussig,  Frank  W.  Principles  of  Economics.  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1915.  Vol.  II,  Chapter  XLVII,  "Differences  of  Wages 
and  Social  Stratification";  Chapters  LII  and  LIII,  "Population 
and  the  Supply  of  Labor." 

Tead,  Ordway.  Instincts  in  Industry.  Houghton,  Mififlin  Company, 
1918.  221  pp. 

Ward,  Lester  F.     Applied  Sociology.     Ginn  and  Company,  1906. 

Dynamic  Sociology.  D.  Appleton  and  Company,  1883,  2  vols. 

Chapter  XIV,  "Education." 


CHAPTER  XX — FIXING  RESPONSIBILITY  FOR  THE  NEW 

PROGRAM 

Cubberley,  Ellwood  P.  Public  School  Administration.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  Company,  1916.  479  pp.  Chapter  I,  "Origin  and  Develop- 
ment of  Schools";  Chapter  II,  "State  Authorization  and  Con- 
trol"; Chapter  III,  "State  Educational  Organization";  Chapter 
IX,  "Functions  of  Boards  for  School  Control";  Chapter  X, 
"The  Superintendent  of  Schools." 

Dewey,  John,  and  Claxton,  P.  P.  Federal  Aid  to  Elementary  Educa- 
tion. National  Child  Labor  Committee,  1917.  12  pp.  Reprinted 
in  Child  Labor  Bulletin,  Vol.  VI,  No.  I,  May,  1917. 

Great  Britain  Ministry  of  Reconstruction.  Interim  Report  of  the 
Committee  on  Adult  Education.  Industrial  and  Social  Conditions 
in  Relation  to  Adult  Education,  1918.  32  pp. 


424  APPENDIX 

Person,  Harlow  S.  Industrial  Education.  Houghton,  Mifflin  Com- 
pany, 1907.  86  pp. 

Schneider,  Herman.  Fundamental  •  Principles  of  Industrial  Educa- 
tion. Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  En- 
gineers. Special  Meeting,  New  York,  April  16,  1909. 


INDEX 


Abels,    M.    H.,    "From    School    to 

Work,"  35 
Ability, 

distribution  and  percentage  of,  248 
for  higher  forms  of  work,  248 
Ability  tests,  234-239 
Accident  prevention,  123 
Adjustment    to     work     (See     "Job 

adjustments") 

Adjustments  in  disputes,  291-306 
Agencies  for  industrial  education,  86 
Akron,  6 

industries,  10 
Allen,  C.  R.,  "The  Instructor,  The 

Man,  The  Job,"  312 
America, 

apprenticeship,  50 
industrial  history,  50 
American  Academy  of  Political  and 

Social  Science,  "Annals,"  16 
American  Federation  of  Labor,  pro- 
gram for  industrial  training,  75 
American  Locomotive  Company,  ap- 
prentice school,  147 
American  Rolling  Mills  Company, 
industrial     relations     organization 

chart,  Figure,  127 
training    department    chart,    Fig- 
ure, 128 

Americanization  of  foreigners,  36, 319 
Apprenticeship, 

advantages  and  disadvantages,  138 
agreement  for  regulations  in  Mass- 
achusetts, 387 
aim  and  scope,  of  modern,  135 


Apprenticeship — Continued 

and  labor  unions,  55 

courses  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  59 

courses  given  by  labor  unions,  59 

history,  42-61 

indenture  form  for  Wisconsin,  385 

lack  of  training  in,  53 

laws,  141 

objections  to,  139 

railroad  schools,  135 

rating  system, 

Brown  and  Sharpe  Co.,  261 
Westinghouse  Co.,  262 

report  form,  Figures,  263-265 

school  of, 

American  Locomotive  Co.,   147 
Grand  Trunk  Railway,  145 
Lakeside  Press,  361 
United  Shoe  Machinery  Co.,  151 

since  1914,  134-152 

state  supervision  of,  141 

statistics,  Figures,  136,  137 

strikes  due  to,  57 
Figure,  57 

to  develop  skilled  labor,  138 

under  the  factory  system,  49 
Appropriations,  federal,  78-86 
Army  job  specification,  226-232 
Army  rating  system,  282 

Figures,  250,  283 
Army  trade  tests,  236 
Arsenal   Technical   Schools,   Indian- 
apolis, students'  rating  system, 
262 

Associated  Industries  of  Massachu- 
setts, 319 


425 


426 


INDEX 


Associations,    Employees    of    Morse 
Dry  Dock  and  Repair  Co.,  376 
Attendance  records,  276 

National  Cash  Register  Co.,  278     > 

B 

Bell  Telephone  system,  rating  system 
for  operators,  272 

Benefit  associations,  Morse  Dry 
Dock  and  Repair  Co.,  378 

Bethlehem  Steel  Corporation,  Fore 
River  Shipbuilding  Plant,  shop 
committees,  299 

Beverly,  Mass.,  co-operative  train- 
ing plan,  71 

Bibliography,  402-424 

Blumenthal,  Sidney  Co.,  industrial 
representation  plan,  298 

Books  (For  titles  of  books  quoted,  see 
"Bibliographies,"  402-424) 

Boston,  Mass., 

continuation  schools,  71 

English  Classical  High  School,  65 

Boys,  statistics  of,  in  industrial  and 
technical  educational  institu- 
tions, 95-103 

Brewer  and  Kelly,  "Critical  Bibliog- 
raphy of  Vocational  Guidance," 
27 

Bridgeport,  Conn.,  unemployed,  26 

Brookline,  Mass.,  per  capita  wealth, 
ii 

Brown  and  Sharpe  Co.,  apprentice- 
ship rating,  261 

Bullock,  Charles  J.,  "Selected  Read- 
ings in  Economics,"  62 

Burroughs  Adding  Machine  Co., 
rating  system  for  employees,  280 

Business  management,  lack  of  train- 
ing in,  115 

C 

California, 

industrial  training,  342 
industries,  10 
labor  turnover,  19 


California-Hawaiian  Sugar  Refining 

Co.,  10 
Carnegie     Institute    of     Pittsburgh, 

School  of  Applied  Industries,  198 
Carpenter,  C.  U.,  157 
.Carpenters,  army  trade  test,  237 
Cass  Technical  High  School,  Detroit, 

foremen's*-courses,  104 
Casual  labor,  54 
Chandler  Scientific  School,  64 
Character  analysis,  use  of  tests  for, 

234 
Charts     (See    Table    of    Contents) 

for  rating  employees,  286 
Chicago,  111., 

Bureau   of   Vocational    Guidance, 

32,34 

child  labor,  32,  34 
educational  statistics,  Figure,  34 
Lane  Technical  High  School,  94 
courses  under  Smith-Hughes  Act, 

104 
Child  labor,     ' 

Figures,  32,  33,  34 
Chicago,  32 

Cox  Act,  Pennsylvania,  73 
England,  1835,  48 
labor  turnover,  22,  34 
labor  unions,  58 
legislation,  58 
statistics,  31 
Waltham,  Mass.,  35 
Wilmington,  Del.,  35 
Child  labor  laws,  federal,  32 
Children, 

defective,  120 

Figures,  29,  30,  I2O,  121 
mental  efficiency,  28 
Cincinnati,  Ohio, 

continuation  schools,  72 
university,  71 
Vocation  Bureau  of,  249 
Civil  service,  Ohio  specifications,  256 
Classification    of    industrial    schools 
and  training  methods,  393-40 1 


INDEX 


427 


Clerks     (See  "Office  employees") 
Cleveland,  Ohio, 

continuation  schools,  72 

East  Technical  High  School,  91, 
1 08 

educational  survey,  31,  349 

labor  turnover,  18,  20 
Cloak  and  suit  industry,  collective 

bargaining,  293 
Collective  bargaining,  293 

criticism  of  wage  system,  256 
College    preparation,    and    technical 

high  school,  107 

Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron  Co.,  collec- 
tive bargaining,  294 
Coman,  Katharine,  "Industrial  His- 
tory of  the  U.  S.,"  53,  62 
Commons,  John  R., 

"Labor  Goodwill,"  258 

"Principles  of  Labor  Legislation,"  4 
Compulsory  education, 

continuation  schools,  71 

in  America,  50 
Continuation  schools,  71 

high  school  as  a  center  for,  345 
Continuity  essential  in  business  or- 
ganizations, 175 
Co-operation, 

between  employer  and  employee, 
291-306 

between  public  and  industry,  1 12 
Co-operative  training,  71 
Corporation  schools,  74,  145 

General  Electric  Company,  366 

government  aid,  82 

H.  R.  Hoe  Printing  Co.,  74 

Lakeside  Press,  361 

Montgomery  Ward  and  Co.,  374 

Solvay  Process  Co.,  371 

subjects  included  in  course,  112 
Corporations,  United  States,  52 
Course  of  study,  308,  315 

high  schools,  101 
Figures,  99,  100-102 

Solvay  Process  Co.,  Figure,  372 


Crittenden,  T.  T.,  on  industrial  train- 
ing, 67 

Crockett,  Cal.,  industries,  10 
Cubberly,  "School  Administration," 

335 
Curriculum    (See  "Course  of  study") 


Dartmouth  College,  Chandler  Scien- 
tific School,  64 
Defective  children     (See  "Children, 

defective") 

Dennison  Manufacturing  Co., 
foremen,  193,  205,  209 
occupations,  6 
training  course,  205 
Department  stores, 
rating  system  for  salespersons,  266 

forms  for,  Figures,  268,  269 
Detroit,  Mich., 

Cass  Technical  High  School,  fore- 
men's courses,  104 
labor  turnover,  18,  20 
Dewey,  John,  "Democracy  and  Ed- 
ucation," 330 
Disabled, 

vocational  guidance  for,  231 
Vocational  Rehabilitation  Act,  82 
Discharge,  power  of,  1 19,  240 
Donnelly,    R.    R.,    and    Sons    Co., 

apprenticeship  school,  361 
Drawing,  66 
Drexel  Institute,  69 
Duluth,  Minn.,  unemployed,  26 
Dyer,  Frank  B.,  71 

E 

Earning  power,  value  of  training  to, 

315 

East  Technical  High  School,  Cleve- 
land, 91,  1 08 

Education  (See  "Industrial  train- 
ing," "  Prevocational  educa- 
tion," "Technical  education," 
and  "Vocational  education") 


428 


INDEX 


Educational  director  a  necessity,  308 
Educational  surveys, 

Cleveland,  31,  349 

factories,  307-319 

Fall  River,  Mass.,  358 

Indianapolis,  Indiana,  352 

Maryland,  30 

Minneapolis,  109,  356 

San  Francisco,  Cal.,  357 

South  Bend,  Indiana,  354 

technical  secondary  schools,  349- 

360 

Efficiency     (See  "Rating  systems") 
Elementary  studies  in  curriculum,  317 
Eliot,  Charles  W.,  121 
Emerson,  Harrington,  "Twelve  Prin- 
ciples of  Efficiency."  153 
Employees, 

occupational  adjustments,  131 

rating  and  grading,  261-275 

records,  243,  252 

Figures,  241,  242,  244-245 

selection,  126,  219,  240-260 

short  term,  19-20 

skilled  and  unskilled,  22 

training  by  service  department,  129 
Employees'       benefit      associations, 
Morse  Dry  Dock  and  Repair  Co., 
376 
Employees,  new, 

interviewing,  220 

methods  of  instructing,  153-174 
Employees'    representation,    291-306 
Employees'  service  department,  func- 
tions, 119 
Employees'  service  director,  relations 

to  director  of  training,  132 
Employment, 

affected  by  seasonal  fluctuations', 
11-27 

part  time  for  students,  173 
Employment  department, 

advantages  of  centralized  control, 
240 

chart  showing  functions,  Figure,  130 


Employment       department  —  Con- 
tinued 

job  specifications,  224-232 

office  layout,  222 
Figure,  222 

organization  and  management,  117- 

133  * 

the  interviewer,  220-239 

transfers  and  promotions,  240-260 
Employment  management, 

literature,  117 

training  for,  114 
Employment  manager, 

duties  and  qualifications,  125,  132 

interviewing  applicants,  220-239 
Employment  managers'  associations, 

117 

Engineering  education  and  schools,  64 
English, 

for  foreigners,  36 

lessons  for  foreign  born,  319 

Figure,  31$ 

English  Classical  High  School,  Bos- 
ton, 65 
Equitable    Life    Assurance    Society, 

rating  system  for  clerks,  275 
Evening  schools  for  vestibule  train- 
ing, 165 
Executive  positions,    promotions    to, 

257 
Executive  training,  108,  115,  175-189 

Firestone  Tire  and  Rubber  Co.,  201 

H.  W.  McElwain  Co.,  175-181 

Westinghouse  Co.,  184 
Executives  rating  system,  285 
Exhibitions, 

London,  1851,  66 

Philadelphia,  1876,  67 

F 

Factories,  rise  of  in  U.  S.,  62 
Factory  management,  duties  of  fore- 
men, 190 

Factory  survey,  to  establish  train- 
ing, 307-319 


INDEX 


429 


Factory  system, 
apprenticeship  under,  49-61 
in  United  States,  52 
Factory    training     (See     "Vestibule 

training") 
Failures  in  business,  due  to  lack  of 

managerial  training,  114 
Fall  River,  Mass., 

educational  survey,  358 
textile  school,  70 

Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Educa- 
tion, 79-86,  342 
Financial  responsibility  of  vocational 

education,  336 
Firestone    Tire    and    Rubber    Co., 

executives'  training  class,  201 
Fitchburg,  Mass.,  co-operative  train- 
ing plan,  71 
Ford    Motor    Co.,    labor    turnover, 

20 

Fore  River  Shipbuilding  Plant, 
Bethlehem  Steel  Corp.,  shop  com- 
mittees, 299 

Foreign  born,  training  for,  317 
Foremen, 

as  instructors,  139 

course    at    Carnegie    Institute    of 

Pittsburgh,  198 
course    at    Cass    Technical    High 

School,  104 
course    at     Goodyear    Tire    and 

Rubber  Co.,  198 
course  at  Lowell  Institute,  197 
Dennison  Manufacturing  Co.,  193, 

205,  209 

functions,  118,  190 
Montgomery  Ward  and  Co.,  207 
outline  of  training  course,  21 1 
Packard  Motor  Car  Co.,  202 
rating  scale,  Figure,  284 
relation  to  workmen,  195 
technical  knowledge,  196 
training,  113,  190-214 
W.  H.  McElwain  Co.,  194 
meetings,  203 


France, 

shop  committees,  302 

vestibule  schools,  161 
Franklin  Union  preparatory  course 
for  Lowell  Institute,  198 


Gantt,   H.   L.,   "Work,  Wages  and 

Profits,"  139,  153,  154 
General    Electric    Co.,    educational 

plan,  366 
George   Weitbrecht    Mechanic   Arts 

High  School,  St.  Paul,  108 
Gilbreth,  F.  B.  and  L.  M.  "Three- 
Position  Plan  of  Promotion, "  257 
Girls,  number  enrolled  in  public  high 

schools,  96 
Figure,  96 
Golden,  John,  76 
Goodyear    Tire    and    Rubber    Co., 

foremen  training  courses,  198 
Government, 

aid  to  industrial  training,  64,  76-86 
responsibility  for  vocational  educa- 
tion, 335 

Grand  Trunk  Railway  System,  ap- 
prentice school,  145 
Gray,  John  H.,  322,  329 
Great  Britain, 

apprenticeship,  42-50 
child  labor,  49 
collective  bargaining,  294 
industrial  research,  338 
labor  unions,  55 
vestibule  schools,  159 
Great  Britain  Ministry  of  Munitions, 
training  in  munitions  industry,  159 
Grievances,  reducing  by  shop  com- 
mittees, 305 
Guilds,  medieval,  42-48 


Handicapped     (See  "Disabled") 
Hart,  Shaffner  and  Marx,  collective 
bargaining,   294 


430 


INDEX 


Harvard  Bureau  of  Vocational  Guid- 
ance, 5,  196,  231,  319 
Harvard  University,  ^ 

Lawrence  Scientific  School,  64 
"Teaching  of  Economics  in  Har- 
vard University,"  281 
Health  and  hygiene,  120 
Herbert,  Messrs.  Alfred,  Ltd.,  vesti- 
bule school,  1 60 
Hewlett    and     Blondeau,     vestibule 

school,  1 60 

High  School  Masters'  Club  of  Massa- 
chusetts, 173 

High  Schools     (See  "Secondary  edu- 
cation"   and    "Technical    high 
schools") 
Hoe,   R.    Printing   Co.,   corporation 

school,  74 

Hollingworth,   "Vocational  Psychol- 
ogy," 285 

Holmes,   H.   W.,   and  others,  "De- 
scriptive Bibliography  of  Meas- 
urement," 249 
Hood  Rubber  Co., 

employment  records,  243 
vestibule  school,  376 
Hoxie,  Robert  F., 

"Scientific  Management  and  La- 
bor," 247,  300 
"Trade  Unionism  in  the  U.  S.,"  57 


Illinois,  University  of,  66 

Illiteracy,  statistics,  35 

Indenture  form  for  apprenticeship  in 

Wisconsin,  385 
Indianapolis,  Ind., 

Arsenal    Technical    Schools,    stu- 
dents' rating  system,  262 
educational  survey,  352 
Industrial  establishments, 
neglect  of  education,  62 
place  in  industrial  training,  1 12 
responsibility  for  industrial  educa- 
tion, 2 


Industrial       establishments  —  Con- 
tinued 

rise  of  in  U.  S.,  62 

size  and  geographical  distribution,  6 

statistics,  Figures,  6-9 

vocational  guidance,  219 
Industrial  history,  42-61 

growth  of  enterprise,  Figure,  53 
Industrial  management,  291-306 

mechanisms    for    controlling    dis- 
agreements, 300 

organization  chart,  Figure,  127 
Industrial  representation,  291-306 
Industrial  research,  Great  Britain, 338 
Industrial  revolution,  48 
Industrial  training  (See  also  "Tech- 
nical    education , "      "  Vestibul  e 
training,"  and  "Vocational  edu- 
cation") 

and  labor  turnover,  18-27 

and  unemployment,  11-27 

appropriations  and  support,  1 1 

as  an  aid  to  personal  development, 
322-329 

by  labor  unions,  59 

classification  of  schools  and  meth- 
ods, 393-401 

criticism  of  present  system,  28-41 

definition,  2 

department  chart,  Figure,  128 

development  of,  62-76 

functions  of  director,  132 

general  need  of,  320-334 

government  aid,  76,  86 

high  school  statistics,  Figures,  95- 
97,  99-102 

hindrances  to,  256 

in  high  schools,  104-116 

in  the  employment  system,  131 

investigation  of  factory  conditions, 
307 

principles  underlying,  320-334 

problems  of,  320-334 

program,  39 

chart  of,  Figure,  316 


INDEX 


431 


Industrial  training — Continued 

record  forms,  Figures,  166,  167 

related  activities,  131 

responsibility  for,  2-4,  334-348 

social  aspects,  320-334 

state  aid,  85 

study  of  operations  for,  309 

summary,  334-348 
Industries, 

persons  employed,  statistics,  16 

seasonal,  8-27 
Figures,  12-15 

statistics,  4-10,  52 

Figures,  6-9 

Industry,     responsibility    for    voca- 
tional education,  335 
Infant  mortality,  Figures,  38,  39 
Inglis,     Alexander,     "Principles     of 
Secondary  Education,"  29,   106 
Instruction, 

methods  of  promoting,  307-319 

standard  procedure  for  new  em- 
ployees, 225 

systematized  form,  307 
Instructors, 

for  vestibule  schools,  168 

for  workmen,  153 

objections  to  untrained,  139 

ratings,  Figures,  286-289 
Intensive  training,  not  desirable  for 

single  operators,  134 
Interviewer, 

of  applicants,  220-239 

woman  for  female  applicants,  222 
Investigations  and  surveys  to  estab- 
lish training,  307-319 
Iron  and  steel  industry,  63 


Job  adjustments,  131,  246 

Job  specifications  and  analysis,  224- 

232,  253 

form  of,  Figures,  227-230,  255 
symbols,  232 
Johnson,  George  E.,  324 


Jones,  Edward  D.,  "Administra- 
tion of  Industrial  Enterprises," 

191,  193 

K 

Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Manual  Training 
High  School,  92 

Kelly,  R.  W.,  "Hiring  the  Worker," 
226 

Kimball,  D.  S.,  "Principles  of  In- 
dustrial Organization,"  193 


Labor  legislation,  improvements,  124 
Labor,  sources  of  supply,  233 
Labor  turnover, 

Figures,  19-21,  23-25 

among  children,  34 

among  non-English  speaking,  36 

and  industrial  training,  18-27 

casual  labor,  54 

causes,  11-27 

percentage,  18 

reduction  by  transfers,  18,  240 

report  for   employees  voluntarily 

leaving,  Figure,  241 
Labor  unions, 

and  apprenticeship,  55 

and  child  labor,  58 

and  shop  committees,  303 

apprenticeship  classes,  59 

apprenticeship  regulations,  140 

compared  to  guilds,  44 

Great  Britain,  55 

program  of  the.  American  Federa- 
tion of  Labor,  75 

United  States,  55 
Lakeside  Press,  apprenticeship  school, 

36i 

Land  Grant  Acts,  64,  76 
Lane  Technical  High  School,  Chicago, 

94 

courses  under  Smith-Hughes  Act, 

104 

Lawrence  Scientific  School,  64 
Leadership,  training  for,  108,  175-189 


432 


INDEX 


Legislation, 

apprenticeship,  49 
child  labor,  58 

Leitch,  John,  "Man  to  Man,"  298 
Lewis  Institute  of  Chicago,  69 
Lick  (California)  School  of  Mechanic 

Arts,  69 
Lord  and  Taylor,  rating  system  for 

salespersons,  266 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  Manual  Training 

High  School,  108 
Lowell  Institute,  school  for  foremen, 

197 

Lowell  Textile  School,  70 
Ludlow,  Mass.,  industries,  10 
Lux  School,  69 

M 

McElwain,  W.  H.  Co., 
duties  of  foremen,  194 
training  system,  175 
Managers,  training  for,  108 
Mann,  Horace,  report  of,  66 
Manual  training,  66 

comparison     of     technical     high 

schools  with,  90 
Manual  training  high   schools   (See 

"Technical  high  schools") 
Manufacturing  establishments     (See 

"Industrial  establishments") 
Marking      system      (See      "Rating 

system") 

Markus,  H.  P.,  262 
Marshall,    Alfred,    "Principles    of 

Economics,"  335 
Maryland,  educational  survey,  30 
Massachusetts, 

apprenticeship  agreement,  387 
continuation  schools,  71 
industrial  training,  341 
Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Labor  Sta- 
tistics, "Annual  Report  for  1906,'* 
58 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy, 64 


Mather,  William,  53 

Medical  examinations,  National  Cash 

Register  Co.,  279 
Medical  service  in  industry,  122 
Medieval  guilds,  42 
Mental  tests     (See   "Ability  tests" 

and  "Psychological  tests") 
Merrick,  D wight  V.,  "Time  studies 

for   Rate   Setting    on    Machine 

Tools,"  224 

Milton,  Mass.,  per  capita  wealth,  u 
Minimum  wage  law  of  Washington 

State,  143 
Ministry  of  Munitions     (See  "Great 

Britain") 
Minneapolis,  Minn., 

educational  survey,  109,  356 
statistics   of   occupations,    Figure, 

109 

Monopolies,  United  States,  52-53 
Montgomery  Ward  and  Co., 
educational  work,  374 
foremen's  meetings,  205 
supervisor's  training  course,  207 
Morse  Dry  Dock  and  Repair  Co., 

employees'  association,   378-380 
Mortality  statistics,  Figures,  38-40 
Motion  pictures,  educational  value, 

333 

Munitions  industry  training,  159 
Munsterberg,  Hugo,  236 


National  Association  of  Corporation 

Schools,  74 
Committee  on  Technical  Training, 

report,  333 
Committee  on  Trade  Apprentices, 

149 
National  Cash  Register  Co.,  rating 

system  for  employees,  278 
Nevada,  per  capita  wealth,  1 1 
New  Bedford  Textile  School,  70 
New  England  industries,  10 


INDEX 


433 


New  York  City, 

continuation  schools,  72 
Stuyvesant   High   School  courses, 

105 
New  York  State  rating  system  for 

clerks,  272 

New  York  Trade  School,  69 
Newport  News,  Va.,  industries,  10 
North  Attleboro,   Mass.,  industries, 

10 
North    Carolina,  per  capita  wealth, 

ii 
Norton  Grinding  Co.,  rating  system 

for  operators,  275 


Occupations, 

classifications,  253 
grading  of,  253 
Minneapolis,  Figure,  109 
standardization,  254 
statistics,  4 
Odin,  Alfred,   "Genese  des  Grands 

Hommes,"  326 
Office  employees, 

rating  systems  for,  272 

recording  forms,     Figures,     273, 

274 

Westinghouse  training  system,  184 
Office,  employment  department,  Fig- 
ure, 222 

Ohio     Civil     Service     Commission, 
"Standard      Specifications     for 
Positions,"  256 
Ohio  continuation  schools,  72 
Organization  for  industrial  relations 
chart.  Figure,  127 


Packard  Motor  Car  Co.,  Technical 

training  course,  202 
Parker,  Carleton,  324 
Part  time  classes,  331,  345 
Part  time  employment,  173 


Pennsylvania,  Cox  Child  Labor  Act, 

73 
Pennsylvania       Museum,       Textile 

School,  70 

Personal  development,  322 
Personnel  management     (See  "Em- 
ployment management") 
Philadelphia  Traction  Co.,  industrial 

representation  plan,  296 
Physical  examination     (See    "Med- 
ical examination") 
Physician,  industrial,  122 
Plant    spirit    raised    by    shop    com- 
mittees, 305 
Pratt    Institute,    Brooklyn,    N.    Y., 

69 

Prevocational  education,  107 
Printing  industry, 

Hoe  Printing  Co.  School,  74 
Lakeside  Press  School,  361 
training  in,  75 

Printz-Biederman  Co.,  industrial  rep- 
resentation plan,  298 
Production  and  training,  results,  157 
Promotions,  240-260 

administration  of  plan,  258 
affected  by  attendance  at  classes, 

278 

from  the  ranks,  247 
of  minor  executives,  175 
percentage  eligible  for,  247 
three-position  plan,  256 
understudy  plan,  257 
Prosser,  Charles  A.,  339 
Providence,    R.    I.,    Technical  High 

School,  93 
Psychological  tests,  235 

army  records,  249 
Public    vs.    private     education,     2, 

334 

Public  schools, 

co-operation  with  vestibule  schools, 

i?i 

criticism,  28 

place  in  industrial  training,  344 


434 


INDEX 


Railroads,  apprenticeship  schools,  135 
Rating  systems,  261-290 
accuracy  in,  285 
five-division  scale,  285 
forms  for  recording,  Figures,  263- 

265,  268,  269,  271,  273,  274 
National  Cash  Register  Co.,  278 
principles  governing,  280 
records,  252,  276-290 
table  showing  variations,   Figure, 

281 

teachers,  Figures,  286-289 
U.  S.  Army,  282 

Figures,  250 
Westinghouse  Co.,  381 
Recording  and  Computing  Machines 

Co.,  vestibule  school,  154 
Records, 

for  apprentices,  Figures,  263-265 
for  employees,  252,  276-290 

Figures,  268,  269,  271,  273,  274, 

283,  284,  286-289 
for  vestibule  schools,  167 
form  for  training,  Figures,  166,  167 
Red  Cross  Institute  for  Crippled  and 
Disabled  Men,  studies  on  oppor- 
tunities for  handicapped  men,  6 
Red  Cross  Institute  for  the  Blind,  231 
Rehabilitation,    Federal    Vocational 

Act,  82 
Renold,  Hans,  Ltd.,  shop  committees, 

294 
Rensselaer     Polytechnic     Institute, 

Troy,  N.  Y.,  64 

Representation  in  industry,  291-306 
Resignations,  analysis  of  reasons,  240 

Figures,  241,  242 

Responsibility  for  industrial  educa- 
tions, 2,  334-348 
Robinson  and   Beard,   "Outlines  of 

European  History,"  47 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  apprentice  courses, 

59 
Ruiebooks  and  manuals,  307 


Russia,  Exhibit  of  Technical  educa- 
tion, 67 


St.    Louis    Manual    Training    High 

School,  67 

St.    Paul,    George    Weitbrecht    Me- 
chanic Arts  High  School,  108 
Salespersons, 

rating  system,  266 
Figures,  268,  269 
San     Francisco,     Cal.,     educational 

survey,  357 
Schools,  64-76 

classification  of,  393-401 
possibilities  for  industrial  training, 

104-116 
technical  high,  87-103 

practical  courses,  104 
vocational  guidance,  217 
Scientific  management,  criticism  of, 

247 

Scott,  Jonathan  French,  "Historical 
Essays  on  Apprenticeship,"  45, 

47 
Seasonal  industries,  8-27 

Figures,  12-15 

Secondary  education,  87-103 
criticism  of,  116 
developing  the  schools,  104-116 
growth  of  high  schools,  Figures,  95, 

97 
place    of    industrial    training    in, 

345 

special  type  school,  106 

surveys  of  technical  schools,  349- 

360 

vocational  education  in,  65 

Segur,  A.  B.,  231 

Service  department  (See  "Em- 
ployees' service  department") 

Seybolt,  Robert  Francis,  "Appren- 
ticeship and  Apprenticeship  edu- 
cation," 50 

Sheffield  Scientific  School,  64 


INDEX 


435 


Shipbuilding  industry, 

statistics  of  employees  in  need  of 

training,  Figure,  in 
training  for,  1 1 1 

Shipping    Board    Emergency    Fleet 
Corporation,  "Aids  to  Employ- 
ment Managers  and  Interviewers 
on  Shipyard  Occupations,"  227 
interview  of  applicants,  221 
Shop  committees,  299-306 
advantages,  303 
aid  to  welfare  activities,  300 
as  educational  and  moral  factors, 

304 

in  England,  294 

in  France,  302 
Shopwork,  definition,  68 
Skilled  labor, 

labor  turnover,  22 

labor  union  attitude,  56 

recruited  from  apprentices,  138 
Slichter,  Sumner,  "Turnover  of  Fac- 
tory Labor,"  16,  19,  22 
Smith-Hughes  Act,  79,  104,  342 
Smith-Lever  Act,  78 
Smith-Sears  Act,  83 
Social  problems,  research  and  study 

of,  124 
Solvay  Process  Co.,  training  school, 

371 

Sources   of   information,    needed   to 

establish  training,  312 
South    Atlantic    States,    per    capita 

wealth,  n 
South    Bend,    Indiana,    educational 

survey,  354 

Specialization     (See  "Skilled  labor ") 
Standard  Oil  Co.,  52 

industrial  representation  plan,  295 
State  education,  85 
State  supervision,  of  apprenticeship, 

141 

Statistical  abstract, 
list  of  industries,  4 
occupational  statistics,  12 


Statistics, 
occupations,  4 
technical  high  schools,  95 

Stenographers,  rating  system  for,  272 

Strayer,  George  D.,  29 

Strikes,   due  to   apprenticeship   dis- 
putes, Figure,  57 

Students,  proper  adjustment,  317 

Stuyvesant    High    School,    N.    Y.f 
courses,  105 

Submarine  Boat  Corporation,  trans- 
fer system  of  employment,  246 

Suggestion    system,    National    Cash 
Register  Co.,  278 

Symbols,  job  specifications,  232 


Taussig,  "Principles  of  Economics," 

325 

Taylor,  F.  W.,  153,  252 
Teachers     (See  "Instructors") 
Tead,  Ordway,  324 
Technical  education,  64 

definition,  88 

Technical  high  school,  87-103 
and  college  preparation,  107 
courses,  104 
criticism  of,  116 
distribution,  105 
educational  survey,  349-360 
Telegraph  operators,   rating  system 

for,  270 

recording  form,  Figure,  271 
Telephone  operators,  rating  system 

for,  272 

Terman,    "Measurement   of   Intelli- 
gence," 249 
Tests     (See     "Ability     tests"     and 

"Psychological  tests") 
Textile  industry,  62 
Textile  schools,  70 
Three-position    plan    of    promotion, 

256 
Time  study,  224 


43^ 


INDEX 


Trade  schools,  69 

Trade  unions     (See  "Labor  unions") 

Training  (See  "Industrial  training") 

Transfers, 

of  employees,  240-260 

of  minor  executives,  175 

reasons  for,  243 

recording  devices,  246 

to  reduce  unemployment,  1 8 


Unemployment     (See  also  "Employ- 
ment" and  "Labor  turnover") 
affected  by  seasonal  fluctuations, 

11-27 

and  industrial  training,  25 
reduction  by  transfers,  18 
United  Shoe  Machinery  Co., 
apprenticeship  school,  151 
co-operative  training  plan,  71 
United  States  Army, 
rating  system,  282 
Figures,  250,  283 
trade  test  division,  226,  236 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 

84 

"Industrial     Education     in    Wil- 
mington, Delaware,"  31 
United     States     Bureau    of    Labor 

Statistics, 
"Bulletin  195,"  25 
study  of  labor  turnover,  18 
trade  specifications,  227 
United  States  Census,  1910, 
apprenticeship  statistics,  136 
child  labor  statistics,  32 
illiteracy  statistics,  35 
United    States    Children's    Bureau, 

35 

United  States  government    aids  for 

industrial  education,  76-86 
United  States  Revenue  Act,  32 
Universities,  training  for  leadership, 
320 


Unskilled  labor, 

labor  turnover,  22 
^  labor  union  attitude,  56 
'     training  of,  317 


Vestibule  training,  153-174 

advantages,  163 

co-operation   with   public   schools, 
171 

disadvantages,  164 

Alfred  Herbert,   Ltd.,  school,   160 

Hewlett  and  Blondeau  School,  160 

Hood  Rubber  Co.,  376 

Recording    and    Computing    Ma- 
chines Co.,  154 

records,  167 

Vocation  Bureau  of  Cincinnati,  249 
Vocational  education, 

definition,  2 

development  of,  62-76 

types  of  school,  89 
Vocational  guidance,  215-239 

duty  of  interviewer,  223 

importance,  215 

in  industry,  219 
.  in  schools,  217 

literature  needed,  216 
Vocational  Rehabilitation  Act,  83 
Vocations,  choice  of,  215 


W 

Wages, 

adjustments  continuous,  not  peri- 
odic, 253 

basis  of.  314 

by  collective  bargaining,  criticism 
of  256 

maximum  and  minimum  rates  for 
each  grade  of  position,  253 

standardization,   254 

value  of  training  to  earning  power, 
315 


INDEX 


437 


Waltham,  Mass.,  child  labor,  35 
War,  effect  of  on  industrial  training, 

74 

War  Emergency  training,  104,  134 
vestibule  schools,  153-174 

Ward,  Lester  F.,  "Applied  Sociol- 
ogy," 323,  327 

Washington,  George,  "Farewell  Ad- 
dress," 321 

Washington  (State)  minimum  wage 
law,  143 

Wealth,  per  capita,  1 1 

Wellesley,  Mass.,  per  capita  wealth, 
ii 

Wentworth  Institute,  Boston,  69 

West  Point,  N.  Y.,  United  States 
Military  Academy,  64 

Western  Electric  and  Manufacturing 
Co.,  training  system,  184 

Western  States,  per  capita  wealth, 
ii 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Co., 
rating  system  for  operators, 
270 


Westinghouse    Electric    and    Manu- 
facturing Co., 
apprenticeship  rating,  262 
educational  system,  169 
occupations,  5,  253 
rating  system,  381 

Willits,  Joseph,  "Steadying  employ- 
ment,"   1 6 

Wilmerding  School,  San  Francisco,  69 
Wilmington,  Del.,  child  labor,  35 
Wisconsin, 

apprenticeship  indenture  form,  385 
apprenticeship  laws,  141 
industrial  training,  72,  340 
Women,  apprenticeship  in  Washing- 
ton State,  143 
Woodward,  Dr.  C.  M.,  67 
Woolley,    Helen    Thompson,    "New 
Scale   of   Mental   and   Physical 
Measurements,"  249 


Yale  University,  Sheffield  Scientific 
School,  64 


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